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| 6557904383 | Neuron | Neural cell Made up of specific structures: dendrites, cell body, axon, and terminal buttons | 0 | |
| 6557907381 | Dendrites | Rootlike parts of the cell that stretch out from the cell body Dendrites grow to make synaptic connections with other neurons | 1 | |
| 6557914555 | Cell Body (also called the Soma) | Contains the nucleus and other parts of the cell needed to sustain its life | 2 | |
| 6557999371 | Axon | Wirelike structure ending in the terminal buttons that extends from the cell body | 3 | |
| 6558034266 | Myelin Sheath | Fatty covering around the axon of some neurons that speeds neural impulses | 4 | |
| 6558042280 | Terminal Buttons (also called End Buttons, Axon Terminal, Terminal Branches of Axon, and Synaptic Knobs) | Branched end of the axon that contains neurotransmitters | 5 | |
| 6558045001 | Neurotransmitters | Chemicals (such as dopamine and serotonin) contained in terminal buttons that enable neurons to communicate Neurotransmitters fit into receptor sites on the dendrites of neurons like a key fits into a lock | 6 | |
| 6558061904 | Synapse | Space between the terminal buttons of one neuron and the dendrites of the next neuron | 7 | |
| 6558064924 | Receptor Sites | Areas on a dendrite designed to receive a specific neurotransmitter | 8 | |
| 6558069151 | Threshold | Level of neurotransmitters required to "fire" a neuron | 9 | |
| 6558091003 | Action Potential | Electric charge that spreads down the length of a neuron after the threshold is achieved Travels like a bullet from a gun | 10 | |
| 6558107584 | All-or-None Principal | Neuron either fire completely or it does not fire at all If the dendrites of a neuron receive enough neurotransmitters to push the neuron past its threshold, the neuron will fire completely every time | 11 | |
| 6558177581 | Neural Firing | Electrochemical process Electricity travels within the cell (moves from the dendrites to the terminal buttons-called action potential), and chemicals (neurotransmitters) travel between cells in the synapse. Electricity does not jump between the neurons | 12 | |
| 6558294608 | Excitatory Neurotransmitters | Chemicals released from the terminal buttons of a neuron that excite the next neuron into firing | 13 | |
| 6558307373 | Inhibitory Neurotransmitters | Chemicals released from the terminal buttons of a neuron that inhibit the next neuron from firing | 14 | |
| 6558319099 | Acetylcholine | Associated with motor movement Lack of acetylcholine is associated with Alzheimer's Disease | 15 | |
| 6558323609 | Dopamine | Associated with motor movement and alertness Lack of dopamine is associated with Parkinson's disease; an overabundance is associated with schizophrenia | 16 | |
| 6558331927 | Endorphins | Neurotransmitter associated with pain control Also involved in drug additiction | 17 | |
| 6558340020 | Serotonin | Neurotransmitter associated with mood control and memory Lack of serotonin is associated with clinical depression | 18 | |
| 6558345888 | Afferent Neurons (or Sensory Neurons) | Neurons that take information from the senses to the brain Afferent neurons are responsible for transmitting neural impulses from the rest of the body to the brain | 19 | |
| 6558352855 | Efferent Neurons (or Motor Neurons) | Neurons that take information from the brain to the rest of the body Efferent neurons carry information that exists to the brain | 20 | |
| 6558359582 | Central Nervous System | Part of the nervous system that consists of our brain and spinal cord All the nerves are housed within bone (the skull and vertebrae) | 21 | |
| 6558365035 | Spinal Cord | A bundle of nerves that run through the center of the spine Transmits information from the rest of the body to the brain | 22 | |
| 6558371502 | Peripheral Nervous System | All the nerves in your body other than the brain and spinal cord nerves, all the nerves not encased in bone Divided into two categories: the somatic and autonomic nervous system | 23 | |
| 6558379385 | Somatic Nervous System | Controls voluntary muscle movement The motor cortex of the brain sends impulses to the somatic nervous system (also called the skeletal nervous system), which controls the muscles that allow us to move | 24 | |
| 6558388657 | Autonomic Nervous System | Controls the autonomic functions of the human body-heart, lungs, internal organs, glands, and so on Controls responses to stress-that fight or flight response that prepares the body to respond to a perceived threat Divided into two categories: the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system | 25 | |
| 6558402115 | Sympathetic Nervous System | Mobilizes our body to respond to stress Part of the nervous system that carries messages to the control systems of the organs, glands, and muscles that direct the body's response to stress The alert system of the human body. It accelerates some functions (such as heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration) but conserves resources needed for a quick response by slowing down other functions (such as digestion) | 26 | |
| 6558419595 | Parasympathetic Nervous System | Responsible for slowing down the body after a stress response Carries messages to the stress response system that causes the body to slow down Think of the parasympathetic nervous system as the brake pedal that slows down the body's autonomic nervous system | 27 | |
| 6558441770 | Accidents | Early psychologists studied accidents as a way to investigate brain functions Accidents resulting in injuries to specific areas (such as the Phineas Gage case study) helped psychologists get an idea about the function of each part of the brain | 28 | |
| 6558451091 | Lesions | Removal or destruction of parts of the brain Sometimes doctors decide that the best treatment for a certain condition involves surgery that will destroy or incapacitate part of the brain Doctors closely monitor the patient's subsequent behavior for changes | 29 | |
| 6558464414 | Electroencephalogram (EEG) | Device that detects brain waves Researchers can examine what types of waves the brain produces during different stages of consciousness and use this information to generalize about brain function Widely used in sleep research to identify the different stages of sleep and dreaming | 30 | |
| 6558476159 | Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT or CT Scan) | A sophisticated x-ray Uses several X-ray cameras that rotate around the brain and combine all the pictures into a detailed three-dimensional picture of the brain's structure Can show only the structure of the brain, not the functions or the activity of different brain structures | 31 | |
| 6558494473 | Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI Scan) | Uses magnetic fields to measure the density and location of brain material Does not use X-rays as the CAT scan does, so the patient is not exposed to carcinogenic radiation Like the CAT scan, the MRI gives doctors information about only the structure of the brain, not the function | 32 | |
| 6558507042 | Positron Emission Tomography (PET Scan) | Measures how much of a certain chemical (glucose, for example) parts of the brain are using. The more used, the higher the activity Different types of scans are used for different chemicals such as neurotransmitters, drugs, and oxygen flow | 33 | |
| 6558521372 | Functional MRI (fMRI) | Combines elements of the MRI and PET scans Can show details of brain structure with information about blood flow in the brain, tying brain structure to brain activity during cognitive tasks | 34 | |
| 6558529824 | Hindbrain | Structures in the top part of the spinal cord The life support system; it controls the basic biological functions that keep us alive Some of the important specific structures within the hindbrain are the medulla, pons, and cerebellum | 35 | |
| 6558541328 | Medulla | Involved in the control of our blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing Also known as the medulla oblongata and is located above the spinal cord | 36 | |
| 6558546794 | Pons | Located just above the medulla and toward the front Connects the hindbrain with the midbrain and forebrain Involved in the control of facial expressions and sleep regulation | 37 | |
| 6558553529 | Cerebellum | Located on the bottom rear of the brain Looks like a smaller version of our brain stuck onto the underside of our brain Cerebellum means little brain Coordinates some habitual muscle movements, such as tracking a target with our eyes or playing the saxophone | 38 | |
| 6558563489 | Midbrain | Located just above the spinal cord Controls some very important functions, such as the ability to focus attention Coordinates simple movements with sensory information | 39 | |
| 6558974764 | Reticular Formation | Netlike collection of cells throughout the midbrain that controls general body arousal and the ability to focus attention If the reticular formation does not function, we fall into a deep coma | 40 | |
| 6558982548 | Forebrain | Controls what we think of as thought and reason The size of our forebrain makes humans human, and most psychological researchers concentrate their efforts in this area of the brain Specific areas of interest to us in the forebrain are the thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus | 41 | |
| 6558990851 | Thalamus | Located on top of the brain stem Responsible for receiving the sensory signals coming up the spinal cord and sending them to the appropriate areas in the rest of the forebrain | 42 | |
| 6558995124 | Hypothalamus | Small structure next to the thalamus The small size of the hypothalamus belies the importance its functions The hypothalamus controls several metabolic functions, including body temperature, sexual arousal (libido), hunger, thirst, and the endocrine system | 43 | |
| 6559003374 | Amygdala | Small area of the brain within the limbic system Vital to our experiences of basic emotions, such as fear and aggression | 44 | |
| 6559024529 | Hippocampus | Vital to our memory system Located in the limbic system Memories are not permanently stored in this area of the brain, however. Memories are processed through this area and then sent to other locations in the cerebral cortex for permanent storage | 45 | |
| 6559031420 | Limbic System | Name for a group of brain structures: thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus | 46 | |
| 6559036935 | Cerebral Cortex | Gray wrinkled surface of the brain A thin (1-mm) layer of densely packed neurons This layer covers the rest of the brain, including most of the structures we have described | 47 | |
| 6559050529 | Hemispheres | The cerebral cortex is divided into two hemispheres: left and right Each hemisphere has four lobes The hemispheres look like mirror images of one another, but they exert some differences in function | 48 | |
| 6559065024 | Left Hemisphere | Gets sensory messages and controls the motor function of the right half of the body Left hemisphere may be more active during spoken language, logic, and sequential tasks | 49 | |
| 6559069359 | Right Hemisphere | Gets sensory messages and controls the motor function of the left half of the body Right hemisphere may be more active during spatial and creative tasks | 50 | |
| 6559075004 | Brain Lateralization (or Hemispheric Specialization) | Specialization of function in each brain hemisphere Right hemisphere may be more active during spatial and creative tasks Left hemisphere may be more active during spoken language, logic, and sequential tasks | 51 | |
| 6559083453 | Corpus Callosum | Nerve bundle that connects the two brain hemispheres | 52 | |
| 6559088090 | Lobes | Areas of the cerebral cortex: frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital | 53 | |
| 6559091113 | Association Area | Any areas of the cerebral cortex that is not associated with receiving sensory information or controlling muscle movements | 54 | |
| 6559094709 | Frontal Lobes | Located at the top front part of the brain behind the eyes Anterior or front of the frontal lobe is called the prefrontal cortex and is thought to play a critical role in directing thought processes Prefrontal cortex is said to act as the brain's central executive and is believed to be important in foreseeing consequences, pursuing goals, and maintaining emotional control Researchers believe this part of the brain is responsible for abstract thought and emotional control | 55 | |
| 6559107594 | Broca's Area | Located in the frontal lobe and responsible for controlling the muscles involved in producing speech Damage to Broca's area might leave us unable to make the muscle movements needed for speech | 56 | |
| 6559230296 | Wernicke's Area | Located in the left temporal lobe Interprets both written and spoken language Damage to this area would affect our ability to understand language Our speech might sound fluent but lack the proper syntax and grammatical structure needed for meaningful communications | 57 | |
| 6559237398 | Motor Cortex | Thin vertical strip at the back of the frontal lobe This part of the cerebral cortex sense signals to our muscles, controlling our voluntary movements The top of the body is controlled by the neurons at the bottom of this cortex (by the ears), progressing down the body as you go up the cortex | 58 | |
| 6559241830 | Parietal Lobes | Located behind the frontal lobe on the top of the brain Contain the sensory cortex (also known as the somato-sensory cortex), which is located right behind the motor cortex in the frontal lobe | 59 | |
| 6559245603 | Sensory Cortex | Also called the somato-sensory cortex Thin vertical strip of the cerebral cortex that receives incoming touch sensations from the rest of our body Organized similarly to the motor cortex Top of the sensory cortex receives sensations from the bottom of the body, progressing down the cortex to the bottom, which processes signals from our face and head | 60 | |
| 6559256492 | Occipital Lobes | Located at the very back of our brain, farthest from our eyes. One of the major functions of this lobe is to interpret messages from our eyes in our visual cortex Impulses from the retinas in our eyes are sent to the visual cortex to be interpreted Impulses from the right half of each retina are processed in the visual cortex in the right occipital lobe. Impulses from the left part of each retina are sent to the visual cortex in our left occipital lobe | 61 | |
| 6559287902 | Temporal Lobes | Process sound sensed by our ears Sound waves are processed by our ears, turned into neural impulses and interpreted in our auditory cortices in both hemispheres | 62 | |
| 6559292841 | Brain Plasticity | Parts of the brain can adapt themselves to perform other functions if needed The cerebral cortex is made up of a complex network of neurons connected by dendrites that grow to make new connections Since dendrites grow throughout our lives, if one part of the brain is damaged, dendrites might be able to make new connections in another part of the brain that would be able to take over the functions usually performed by the damaged part of the brain Dendrites grow most quickly in younger children. Researchers know that younger brains are more plastic and are more likely to be able to compensate for damage | 63 | |
| 6559308105 | Endocrine System | System of glands that secrete hormones-chemicals that travel through our blood stream Affects many different biological processes in our bodies, such as reproduction | 64 | |
| 7195246311 | Transduction | The translation of incoming stimuli in neural signals Neural impulses from the senses travel first to the thalamus and then on to different cortices of the brain The sense of smell is the one exception to this rule | 65 | |
| 7195252094 | Sensory Adaptation | Decreasing responsiveness to stimuli due to constant stimulation For example, we eventually stop perceiving a persistent scent in a room | 66 | |
| 7195254697 | Sensory Habituation (Also called Perceptual Adaptation) | Our perception of sensations is partially determined by how focused we are on them For example, no longer hearing traffic from the nearby freeway after having lived in a place for years | 67 | |
| 7195259372 | Cocktail-Party Phenomenon | If you are talking with a friend and someone across the room says your name, your attention will probably involuntarily switch across the room An example of selective attention | 68 | |
| 7195263006 | Sensation | Sensation occurs when one of our senses (sight, smell, hearing, touch, or taste) is activated by something in our environment Occurs before the process of perception (the brain interpreting these sensations) | 69 | |
| 7195266252 | Perception | The brain's interpretation of sensory messages Occurs after the process of sensation (the activation of our sense of sight, smell, hearing, touch, and taste) The process of understanding and interpreting sensations | 70 | |
| 7195270326 | Energy Senses | The senses of vision, hearing, and touch These senses gather energy in the form of light, sound waves, and pressure, respectively | 71 | |
| 7195275966 | Chemical Senses | The senses of taste and smell These senses work by gathering chemicals. | 72 | |
| 7195277982 | Vision | Dominant sense in human beings. Sighted people use vision to gather information about their environment more than any other sense. The process of vision involves several steps: 1. Light is reflected off objects 2. Reflected light coming from the object enters eye through the cornea and pupil, is focused by the lens, and is projected on to the retina where specialized neurons are activated by the different wavelengths of light. 3. Transduction occurs when light activates the special neurons in the retina and sends impulses along the optic nerve to the occidental lobe the of the brain. 4. Impulses from the left side of each retina (right visual field) go to the left hemisphere of the brain, and those from the right side of each retina (Left visual field) go to the right side of the brain. 5. Visual cortex receives the impulses from the retina, which activate feature detectors for vertical lines, curves, motion, among others. what we perceive visually is a combination of these features. | 73 | |
| 7195299334 | Cornea | Protective covering on the front of the eye Helps focus the light | 74 | |
| 7195300370 | Pupil | Opening in the center of the eye Similar to the shutter of a camera Muscles that control the pupil (called the iris) open it (Dilate) to let more light in and also make it smaller and to let less light in | 75 | |
| 7195302866 | Lens | Focuses light that enters the pupil Curved and flexible in order to focus the light As the light passes through the lens, the image is flipped upside down and inverted The focused inverted image projects on the retina | 76 | |
| 7195305691 | Retina | Like a screen on the back of your eye As the light passes through the lens, the image is flipped upside down and projected on the retina Special neurons in the retina (cones, which detect color, and rods, which detect black and white) are activated by light and send impulses along the optic nerve to the occipital lobe of the brain | 77 | |
| 7195313285 | Optic Nerve | Nerve leading from the retina that carries impulses to the occipital lobe of the brain The optic nerve is divided into two parts. Impulses from the left side of each retina (right visual field) go to the left hemisphere of the brain, and those from the right side of each retina (left visual field) go to the right side of the brain | 78 | |
| 7195318313 | Occipital Lobe | Location of the visual cortex Part of the brain that processes vision sensations Receives impulses via the optic nerve The optic nerve is divided into two parts. Impulses from the left side of each retina (right visual field) go to the left hemisphere of the brain, and those from the right side of each retina (left visual field) go to the right side of the brain | 79 | |
| 7195322203 | Feature Detectors | Perception researches Hubel and Weisel discovered that groups of neurons in the visual cortex respond to different types of visual images Visual cortex has features detectors for vertical lines, curves, and motion, among others. What we perceive visually is a combination of these features | 80 | |
| 7195325447 | Visible Light | Color is perceived due to a combination of different factors: - Light intensity: How much energy the light contains determines how bright the object appears. -Light wavelength: the length of the light waves determines the particular hue we see. We see different wavelengths withing the visible light spectrum as different colors. | 81 | |
| 7195329533 | Rods and Cones | Special neurons in the retina that are activated by light Cones are activated by color Rods respond to black and white | 82 | |
| 7195331216 | Bipolar Cells and Ganglion Cells | These cells make up different layers in the retina In the retina, light activates rod and cone cells Rods and cones send signals to the next layer of cells in the retina: bipolar cells Bipolar cells send signals to the next layers of cells in the retina: Ganglion cells Ganglion cells send signals to the brain through the optic nerve | 83 | |
| 7195338384 | Fovea | Indentation at the center of the retina where cones are concentrated When light is focused onto your fovea, you see it in color Your peripheral vision, especially at the extremes, relies on rods and is mostly in black and white Foveal vision, focusing light on the fovea, results n the sharpest and clearest visual perception | 84 | |
| 7195345508 | Blind Spot | The spot on the retina where the optic nerve leaves the retina and there are no rods or cones We cannot detect objects in our blind spot, but our brains and the movement of our eyes accommodate for the blind spot, so we usually don't notice it | 85 | |
| 7195348577 | Trichromatic Theory | A theory of color vision (the other theory is Opponent-Process Theory) Also called Young-Helmholtz Theory Hypothesizes that we have three types of cones in the retina: cones that detect the primary colors of light- blue, red, and green These cones are activated in different combinations to produce all the colors the visible spectrum Even though this theory has some research support and makes sense intuitively, it cannot explain such visual phenomena as afterimages and color blindness Most researches agree that color vision is explained by a combination of the Trichromatic and Opponent-Process Theories | 86 |
