Memory, Cognition, and Language
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| 9118598267 | Information Processing System of Memory | -encoding -storage -retrieval -computer analogy | 0 | |
| 9118598268 | encoding | forming a memory code | 1 | |
| 9118598269 | storage | maintaining encoded memories over time | 2 | |
| 9118598270 | retrieval | recovering info from memory stores | 3 | |
| 9118598271 | computer analogy | Information Processing System of Memory - human information processing may be similar to the sequence of steps of and operations in a computer program - similar to the flow of information from input to output when a computer processes information | 4 | |
| 9118598272 | Three-Stage Model/Theory of Memory (Atkinson and Shiffrin) | 1. sensory memory -iconic -echoic 2. short term/working memory (maintenance rehearsal) 3. long term memory |  | 5 |
| 9118598273 | sensory memory | a split second holding tank for incoming sensory information (all the information your senses are processing right now is held in sensory memory for a very short period of time - less than a second) | 6 | |
| 9118598274 | iconic memory | a split second perfect photograph of a scene (1/4 to 1/2 second) | 7 | |
| 9118598275 | echoic memory | an equally perfect brief (2-4 second) memory for sounds | 8 | |
| 9118598276 | short-term memory (working memory) | -around 20 seconds -capacity: 7 (+ or - 2) (chunking improves capacity) -encoded memory -we encode what we think is important to us (selective attention) | 9 | |
| 9118598277 | long-term memory | -permanent storage (duration) -no limit (capacity) -potential lifetime -Episodic Memory -Semantic Memory -Procedural Memory -Classical Conditioned Responses | 10 | |
| 9118598278 | Automatic Processing | -space -place -time of day | 11 | |
| 9118598279 | Effortful Processing (elaborative rehearsal) | -rehearsal -spacing -context, connections, and meaning -self-reference -mnemonics -chunking -visual imagery | 12 | |
| 9118598280 | rehearsal | -a way to retain information (repeat it) -e.g. when you look up a phone number and repeat it to yourself on the way to the phone, you are rehearsing the information | 13 | |
| 9118598281 | spacing | the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through cramming -daily reading and review | 14 | |
| 9118598282 | context, connections, and meaning | thinking about the context, connections, and meaning of something you are trying to remember can help you to retain that information | 15 | |
| 9118598283 | self-reference | the tendency to better remember information relevant to ourselves; makes new information personally relevant by relating it to existing information | 16 | |
| 9118598284 | mnemonics | -mnemonic devices -e.g. "My Very Educated Mother Just Served Us Nachos" to remember the planets or "RICE" for injuries | 17 | |
| 9118598285 | chunking | a way to expand short term memory capacity -e.g. remember grocery list items into groups | 18 | |
| 9118598286 | visual imagery | process of forming mental pictures of objects or ideas; can be used to help retain information -class example: the half of the class that thought about the image of the sentence remembered the information better -method of Loci | 19 | |
| 9118598287 | Levels of Processing Theory | an alternate way to think about memory that states memories are not short term or long term, but rather deeply processed (elaborately) or shallowly processed (maintenance) -visual encoding -acoustic encoding -semantic encoding | 20 | |
| 9118598288 | visual encoding | encoding of picture images | 21 | |
| 9118598289 | acoustic encoding | encoding of sound, especially the sound of words | 22 | |
| 9118598290 | semantic encoding | encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words | 23 | |
| 9118598291 | Types of long term memories | explicit memories (declarative) - hippocampus -semantic -episodic implicit memories (non-declarative) - cerebellum -procedural -classically conditioned or emotional responses | 24 | |
| 9118598292 | Semantic memory | -general knowledge of the world -stored as facts, meanings, or categories rather than sequentially -e.g. "what is the difference between the terms effect and affect?" -"I know that..." | 25 | |
| 9118598293 | Episodic memory | -memories of specific events, stored in sequential series of events -e.g. remembering the last time you went on vacation -"I remember when..." | 26 | |
| 9118598294 | Procedural memory | -memories of skills and how to perform them -memories are sequential but might be very complicated to describe in words -e.g. how to throw a curveball | 27 | |
| 9118598295 | Alzheimer's | loses explicit memories (semantic and episodic) and can't form new ones either | 28 | |
| 9118598296 | Clive Wearing | man with anterograde amnesia and retrograde amnesia-has short term memory, but not able to process it to long term memory. Memory problem caused by infection of the brain which created alot of damage, completely destroyed his hypocampus, uses diary to remind him of what he did/thought, can still play piano perfectly though(procedural memory good, cerebellum unaffected) | 29 | |
| 9118598297 | Memory construction | -associative model/semantic network model of memory --memory consists of mental clusters of interconnected information -spreading activation |  | 30 |
| 9118598298 | spreading activation | activating one memory triggers the activation of related memories | 31 | |
| 9118598299 | misinformation effect | incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event | 32 | |
| 9118598300 | imagination inflation | completely false memories may be confabulated through imagination alone | 33 | |
| 9118598301 | flashbulb memories | a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event, may be distorted -class example: when Mrs. Mathers met her future husband for the first time | 34 | |
| 9118598302 | eidetic imagery | a form of memory, often called photographic memory, which consists of especially vivid visual recollections of material | 35 | |
| 9118598303 | Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve | retention quickly drops after time, then levels out |  | 36 |
| 9118598304 | Retrieval and Recognition | -the last step in any memory model -getting information out of memory so we can use it | 37 | |
| 9118598305 | retrieval failure | Stored information cannot be accessed, which leads to forgetting. | 38 | |
| 9118598306 | motivated forgetting | unknowingly revising history | 39 | |
| 9118598307 | recognition | the process of matching a current event or fact with one already in memory -"have i smelled this before?" | 40 | |
| 9118598308 | Repression | the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness, anxiety- arousing thoughts, feelings and memories. Failure in retrieval. | 41 | |
| 9118598309 | Source Amnesia | Attributing to the wrong source and even we have experienced, heard about, or imagined | 42 | |
| 9118598310 | recall | retrieving a memory with an external cue -"what does my perfume smell like?" | 43 | |
| 9118598311 | Serial Position Effect | -seen when recall of a list is affected by the order of items in a list -items in the middle are most often forgotten -made up of: primary effect and recency effect | 44 | |
| 9118598312 | primary effect | predicts that we are more likely to recall items presented at the beginning of a list | 45 | |
| 9118598313 | recency effect | our ability to recall the items at the end of a list | 46 | |
| 9118598314 | retroactive interference | -backward acting -when new information makes it harder to recall something you learned earlier -"if you study your psychology at 3:00 and your sociology at 6:00, you might have trouble recalling the psychology information on a test the next day | 47 | |
| 9118598315 | proactive interference | -forward acting -when something you learned earlier disrupts your recall of something you experience later -"if a researcher reads you a list of items in a certain order, then rereads them differently and asks you to list them the new order, the old list proactively interferes with recall of the new list" | 48 | |
| 9118598316 | Encoding Specificity Principle | the idea that a retrieval cue can serve as an effective reminder when it helps re-create the specific way in which information was initially encoded -state dependent memory -mood congruent memory -context effects | 49 | |
| 9118598317 | state dependent memory | refers to the phenomenon of recalling events encoded while in particular states of consciousness -if you suddenly remember an appointment while you are drowsy and about to go to sleep, you will need to write it down. very possible will you not remember it again until you are drowsy and in that same state of consciousness | 50 | |
| 9118598318 | mood congruent memory | the greater likelihood of recalling an item when our mood matched the mood we were in when the event happened -we are likely to recall happy events when we are happy and recall negative events when we are feeling pessimistic | 51 | |
| 9118598319 | context effects | memory is aided by being in the physical location where encoding took place | 52 | |
| 9118598320 | tip of the tongue experience | you know that you know it but you can't access the memory | 53 | |
| 9118598321 | Long-term potentiation and consolidation | -strengthening of a neural pathway as a result of repeated simulation - leads to consolidation -changes in the number of synapses as dendrites branch out as memories become fixed and stable | 54 | |
| 9118598322 | brain structures | -hippocampus: consolidation of new memories (explicit) -amygdala: emotional memories -cerebellum: procedural memories, classical conditioned -cerebral cortex: semantic, episodic, and procedural | 55 | |
| 9118598323 | memory trace - engram | a change in the brain that stores a memory | 56 | |
| 9118598324 | concepts | -similar to the schemata -we each have cognitive rules we apply to stimuli from our environment that allow us to categorize and think about the objects, people, and ideas we encounter -our concept of mom is different than our concept of dad, which is different from our concept of a soccer game -base concepts on prototypes | 57 | |
| 9118598325 | prototypes | what we think is the most typical example of a particular concept | 58 | |
| 9118598326 | divergent thinking | thinking that searches for multiple possible answers to a question -more closely associated with creativity | 59 | |
| 9118598327 | convergent thinking | thinking pointed toward one solution | 60 | |
| 9118598328 | problem solving methods | -algorithms -heuristics | 61 | |
| 9118598329 | trial and error | the process of experimenting with various methods of doing something until one finds the most successful | 62 | |
| 9118598330 | algorithms | a rule that guarantees the right solution by using a formula or other fool proof method -if you are trying to guess a computer password and you know it is a combination of only two letters, you could use an algorithm and guess pairs of letters combination until you hit the right one (if the combination is 5 letters, it gets harder and possibly impractical) | 63 | |
| 9118598331 | heuristics in problem solving | -"rule of thumb" - a rule that is generally, but not always, true that we can use to make a judgement in a situation -if you are trying to guess that same password, you might begin by guessing actual 5 letter words rather than random combinations of letters - the password might be a meaningless combination of letters but you know that passwords are most often actual words | 64 | |
| 9118598332 | incubation and insight | sudden awareness after period of incubation | 65 | |
| 9118598333 | fixation | the inability to see a problem from a new perspective, by employing a different mental set | 66 | |
| 9118598334 | mental set | the tendency to fall into established thought patterns | 67 | |
| 9118598335 | functional fixedness | the inability to see a new use for an object | 68 | |
| 9118598336 | making decisions and forming judgements | -confirmation bias -belief perseverance -overconfidence -framing -representative heuristic -availability heuristic | 69 | |
| 9118598337 | confirmation bias | we tend to look for evidence that confirms our beliefs and ignore evidence that contradicts what we think is true | 70 | |
| 9118598338 | belief perseverance | refers to our tendency to maintain a belief even after the evidence we used to form the belief is contradicted | 71 | |
| 9118598339 | overconfidence | our tendency to overestimate how accurate our judgements are | 72 | |
| 9118598340 | framing | the way a problem is presented -presentation can drastically change the way we view a problem or an issue | 73 | |
| 9118598341 | representative heuristic | judging a situation based on how similar the aspects are to prototypes the person holds in his or her mind -e.g. a person might judge a young person more likely to commit suicide because of a prototype of the depressed adolescent when, in fact, suicide rates are not higher in younger populations | 74 | |
| 9118598342 | availability heuristic | judging a situation based on examples of similar situations that come to mind initially -this heuristic might lead to incorrect conclusions due to variability in personal experience -e.g. a person may judge his or her neighborhood to be more dangerous that others in the city simply because that person is more familiar with violence in his or her neighborhood than in other neighborhoods | 75 | |
| 9118598343 | Storage Decay | Even after encoding something well, we may forget it later. | 76 | |
| 9118598344 | Encoding Failure | When we cannot remember the info we processed | 77 | |
| 9118598345 | properties of language | Symbolic representation of things, concepts, and ideas, can be words or gestures. Words are arbitary pairings between sounds, symbols and meaning. | 78 | |
| 9118598346 | phonemes | Smallest speech unit that can be perceived - 100 sounds in human language | 79 | |
| 9118598347 | morphemes | Smallest units of meaning includes root words, prefixes, suffixes ex: un friend ly Each part changes the menaing of the word | 80 | |
| 9118598348 | syntax | System of rules that specify arrangement of words in sentences (noun and verb phrases) | 81 | |
| 9118598349 | semantics | Set of rules used to derive meaning from morphemes, words and sentences (adding 'ed' to laugh makes it past tense). | 82 | |
| 9118598350 | language development | -Babbling -One-word -Two-word -Telegraphic speech | 83 | |
| 9118598351 | babbling | Begins at about 4 months . The infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language | 84 | |
| 9118598352 | one-word | Age 1-2 a child speaks mostly in single words | 85 | |
| 9118598353 | two-word | Age 2 < a child speaks mostly two word sentences | 86 | |
| 9118598354 | telegraphic speech | A child speaks like a telegram using mostly nouns and verbs ex: go car, give doll | 87 | |
| 9118598355 | overgeneralization | overgeneralizing the 'ed' at the end of a word | 88 | |
| 9118598356 | Lenenbergs' Critical Age Theory | -Critical period for language acquisition is approx. 2 to puberty -Post adolescent language is difficult because of lateralization (2 sides of brain develop specialized functions) | 89 | |
| 9118598357 | Whorf-Sapir Linguistic Relativity Theory (linguistic determinism) | Language determines the way we think | 90 | |
| 9118598358 | Nativist Theory | Humans have inborn or "native" propensity for language (Noam Chomsky) | 91 | |
| 9118598359 | Language Acquisition Device (LAD) | Innate mechanism or process that facilitates the learning of language (just like to sit or walk- if allowed to develop normally) | 92 | |
| 9118598360 | Behaviorist Theory of language development - Skinner: Operant Learning | We can explain language development with similar learning principles such as association, imitation and reinforcement | 93 |
