Modules 1-5, 21-23, 34-38 and 40
Psychology Eighth Edition in Modules by David G. Myers
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| 289880464 | catharsis | emotional release. In psychology, the catharsis hypothesis maintains that "releasing" aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges. | |
| 289880465 | feel-good, do-good phenomenon | people's tendency to be helpful when already in a good mood | |
| 289880466 | subjective well-being | self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life. Used along with measures of objective well-being (for example, physical and economic indicators) to evaluate people's quality of life. | |
| 289880467 | adaptation-level phenomenon | our tendency to form judgments (of sounds, of lights, of income) relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience | |
| 289880468 | relative deprivation | the perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself | |
| 289880469 | emotion | a response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experience | |
| 289880470 | James-Lange theory | the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli | |
| 289880471 | Cannon-Bard theory | the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion | |
| 289880472 | two-factor theory | Schachter's theory that to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal | |
| 289880473 | polygraph | a machine, commonly used in attempts to detect lies, that measures several of the physiological responses accompanying emotion | |
| 289880474 | flow | a completely involved, focused state of consciousness, with diminished awareness of self and time, resulting from optimal engagement of one's skills | |
| 289880475 | industrial-organizational psychology | The application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces | |
| 289880476 | personnel psychology | a sub-field of I/O psychology that focuses on employee recruitment, selection, placement, training, appraisal, and development | |
| 289880477 | organizational psychology | a sub-field of I/O psychology that examines organizational influences on worker satisfaction and productivity and facilitates organizational change | |
| 289880478 | structured interviews | interview process that asks the same job-relevant questions of all applicants, each of whom is rated on established scales | |
| 289880479 | achievement motivation | a desire for significant accomplishment: for mastery of things, people, or ideas; for attaining a high standard | |
| 289880480 | task leadership | goal-oriented leadership that sets standards, organizes work, and focuses attention on goals | |
| 289880481 | social leadership | group-oriented leadership that builds teamwork, mediates conflict, and offers support | |
| 289880482 | glucose | the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger. | |
| 289880483 | set point | the point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" is supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight. | |
| 289880484 | basal metabolic rate | the body's resting rate of energy expenditure | |
| 289880485 | anorexia nervosa | an eating disorder in which a normal-weight person diets and becomes significantly underweight, yet, still feeling fat, continues to starve | |
| 289880486 | bulimia nervosa | an eating disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually of high-calorie foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise | |
| 289880487 | motivation | a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior. | |
| 289880488 | instinct | a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned | |
| 289880489 | drive-reduction theory | the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need | |
| 289880490 | homeostasis | a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level | |
| 289880491 | incentive | a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior | |
| 289880492 | hierarchy of needs | Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active | |
| 289880493 | Biological psychology | A branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior. | |
| 289880494 | Neuron | A nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system. | |
| 289880495 | Dendrite | The bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body. | |
| 289880496 | Axon | The extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands. enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next. | |
| 289880497 | Myelin Sheath | A layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next. | |
| 289880498 | Action Potential | A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. The action potential is generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon's membrane. | |
| 289880499 | Threshold | The level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse. | |
| 289880500 | Synapse | The junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or cleft. | |
| 289880501 | Neurotransmitters | Chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse. | |
| 289880502 | Acetylcholine | Enables muscle action, learning, and memory, | |
| 289880503 | Dopamine | Influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion. | |
| 289880504 | Serotonin | Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal. | |
| 289880505 | Norepinephrine | Helps control alertness and arousal. | |
| 289880506 | GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) | A major inhibitory neurotransmitter. | |
| 289880507 | Glutamate | A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory. | |
| 289880508 | Endorphins | Natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure. | |
| 289880509 | Nervous System | The body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems. | |
| 289880510 | Central nervous system | The brain and spinal chord. | |
| 289880511 | Peripheral nervous system | The sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body. | |
| 289880512 | Nerves | These bundled axons, which are part of the peripheral nervous system, connect the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs. | |
| 289880513 | Sensory neurons | Neurons that carry incoming information from the sense receptors to the central nervous system. | |
| 289880514 | Motor neurons | Neurons that carry outgoing information from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands. | |
| 289880515 | Interneurons | Central nervous system neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs. | |
| 289880516 | Somatic nervous system | The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles. | |
| 289880517 | Autonomic nervous system | The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs. Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms. | |
| 289880518 | Sympathetic nervous system | The division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations | |
| 289880519 | Parasympathetic nervous system | The division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy. | |
| 289880520 | Reflex | A simple, automatic inborn response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response. | |
| 289880521 | Neural networks | Interconnected neural cells. With experience, networks can learn, as feedback strengthens of inhibits connections that produce certain results. Computer simulations of neural networks show analogous learning. | |
| 289880522 | Endocrine system | The body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream. | |
| 289880523 | Hormones | Chemical messengers, mostly those manufactured by the endocrine glands, that are produced in one tissue and affect another. | |
| 289880524 | Adrenal glands | A pair of endocrine glands just above the kidneys. The adrenals secrete the hormones epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline), which help to arouse the body in times of stress. | |
| 289880525 | Pituitary gland | The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands. | |
| 289880526 | Electroencephalogram (EEG) | An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp. | |
| 289880527 | PET (positron emission tomography) scan | A visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task. | |
| 289880528 | MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) | A technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain. | |
| 289880529 | FMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) | A technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. MRI scans show brain anatomy; FMRI scans show brain function. | |
| 289880530 | Brainstem | The oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions. | |
| 289880531 | Medulla | The base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing. | |
| 289880532 | Reticular Formation | A nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important tole in controlling arousal. | |
| 289880533 | Thalamus | The brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla. | |
| 289880534 | Cerebellum | The "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; its functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance. | |
| 289880535 | Limbic system | A doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex. includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus. | |
| 289880536 | Amygdala | Two Lima bean-sized neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion. | |
| 289880537 | Hypothalamus | A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion. | |
| 289880538 | Cerebral cortex | The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information processing center. | |
| 289880539 | Glial cells | Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons. | |
| 289880540 | Frontal lobes | The portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgements. | |
| 289880541 | Parietal lobes | The portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position. | |
| 289880542 | Occipital lobes | The portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the the back of the head; includes the visual areas, which receive visual information from the opposite visual field. | |
| 289880543 | Temporal lobes | The portion or the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each of which receives auditory information primarily from the opposite ear. | |
| 289880544 | Motor Cortex | An area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements. | |
| 289880545 | Sensory Cortex | The area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations. | |
| 289880546 | Association areas | Areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking. | |
| 289880547 | Aphasia | Impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area or to Wernicke's area. | |
| 289880548 | Broca's area | Controls language expression-an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech. | |
| 289880549 | Wernicke's area | Controls language reception- a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe. | |
| 289880550 | Plasticity | The brain's capacity for modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage (especially in children) and in experiments on the effects of experience on brain development. | |
| 289880551 | Corpus callosum | The large band of neural fibers connecting two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them. | |
| 289880552 | Split brain | A condition in which the two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the connecting fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) between them. | |
| 289880553 | learning | a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience | |
| 289880554 | observational learning | learning by observing others | |
| 289880555 | modeling | the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior | |
| 289880556 | mirror neurons | frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain action or when observing another doing so - may enable imitation, language learning and empathy | |
| 289880557 | prosocial behaviour | positive, constructive, helpful behavior - opposite of antisocial behavior | |
| 289880558 | associative learning | learning that certain events (response/its consequences in operant conditioning) occur together | |
| 289880559 | operant conditioning | type of learning which behavior is strengthened by a reinforcer or diminished by punisher | |
| 289880560 | respondent behavior | behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus | |
| 289880561 | operant behavior | behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences | |
| 289880562 | law of effect | Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by a favorable consequences become more likely and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely | |
| 289880563 | operant chamber | a Skinner box containing a bar/key animals can manipulate to obtain a reinforce - operant conditioning research | |
| 289880564 | learning | relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience | |
| 289880565 | shaping | reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior | |
| 289880566 | reinforcer | event that strengthens the behavior it follows | |
| 289880567 | positive reinforcement | increasing behaviors by present positive stimuli - when presented, it strengthens it | |
| 289880568 | negative reinforcement | increasing behaviors by stopping/reducing negative stimuli - when removed after a response, strengthens it | |
| 289880569 | primary reinforcer | innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies biological need | |
| 289880570 | conditioned reinforcer | stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer | |
| 289880571 | continuous reinforcement | reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs | |
| 289880572 | partial (intermittent) reinforcement | reinforcing a response only part of the time - slower acquisition of a response but greater resistance to extinction | |
| 289880573 | fixed-ratio schedule | reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses | |
| 289880574 | fixed-interval schedule | reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time it has elapsed | |
| 289880575 | variable-interval schedule | a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after a specified time interval | |
| 289880576 | punishment | an event that decreases the behavior it follows | |
| 289880577 | cognitive map | a mental representation of the layout of one's environment | |
| 289880578 | latent learning | learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it | |
| 289880579 | intrinsic motivation | a desire to perform a behavior for its own sake | |
| 289880580 | extrinsic motivation | desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment | |
| 289880581 | associative learning | learning that certain events (two stimuli) occur together | |
| 289880582 | classical conditioning | learning where an organism comes to associate stimuli, a neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus | |
| 289880583 | learning | a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience | |
| 289880584 | behaviorism | the view that psychology should be an objective science | |
| 289880585 | unconditioned response (UR) | the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus | |
| 289880586 | unconditioned stimulus (US) | a stimulus that unconditionally/naturally/automatically triggers a response | |
| 289880587 | conditioned response (CR) | the learned response to a previously neutral (now conditioned) stimulus (CS) | |
| 289880588 | conditioned stimulus (CS) | an originally irrelevant stimulus that after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US) comes to trigger a conditioned response | |
| 289880589 | acquisition | initial stage of classical conditioning - associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response | |
| 289880590 | extinction | diminishing of conditioned response - when an unconditional stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS) | |
| 289880591 | spontaneous recovery | reappearance, after a pause, of a extinguished conditioned response | |
| 289880592 | generalization | tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for a stimuli to the conditioned stimulus to elicit a similar response | |
| 289880593 | discrimination | ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditional stimulus | |
| 289880594 | Case Study | An observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles. | |
| 289880595 | Survey | A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people usually by questioning a representative, random sample them. | |
| 289880596 | False Consensus Effect | The tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors. | |
| 289880597 | Population | All the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study. | |
| 289880598 | Random Sample | Something that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion. | |
| 289880599 | Naturalistic Observation | Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation. | |
| 289880600 | Correlation | A measure of the extent to which the two factors vary together, and of how well either factor predicts the other. | |
| 289880601 | ** Correlation Coefficient | Is the mathematical expression of the relationship (-1 to +1 range). | |
| 289880602 | Scatter Plots | A graphed cluster of dots, each represent value of two variables. Slope suggests direction of relationship between the 2. Amount suggest strength (little can also indicate high) | |
| 289880603 | Illusionary Correlation | The perception of a relationship where none exists--we are likely to notice or recall instances to confirm our belief. | |
| 289880604 | Experiment | A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factor (IV) to observe the effect on same behavior or mental process (DV). By random assignment of participants, The experimenter aims to control other relevant factors. | |
| 289880605 | Double Blind Procedure | An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are blind about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies. | |
| 289880606 | Placebo Effect | Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which is assumed to be an active agent. | |
| 289880607 | Experimental Condition | The condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the treatment (one version of IV) | |
| 289880608 | Control Condition | The condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental condition and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment. | |
| 289880609 | Random Assignment | Assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to different groups. | |
| 289880610 | Independent Variable (IV) | The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied. | |
| 289880611 | Dependent Variable (DV) | The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the IV. | |
| 289880612 | Mode | The most frequently occurring scores in a distribution. | |
| 289880613 | Mean | The arithmetic average of a distribution obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores. | |
| 289880614 | Median | The middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it. | |
| 289880615 | Range | The difference between the highest and the lowest scores in a distribution. | |
| 289880616 | Standard Deviation | A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score. | |
| 289880617 | Statistical Significance | A statistical statement of how likely it is than an obtained result occurred by chance. | |
| 289880618 | Hindsight Bias | The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. "I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon" | |
| 289880619 | Critical Thinking | Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. It examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions. | |
| 289880620 | Theory | An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observations. | |
| 289880621 | Hypothesis | A testable prediction, often implied by a theory. | |
| 289880622 | Operational Definition | A statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. | |
| 289880623 | Replication | Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances. | |
| 289880624 | Culture | The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next. | |
| 289880625 | Psychology | The scientific study of behavior and mental processes. | |
| 289880626 | Empiricism | The view that knowledge originates in experiences (via senses) and that science should rely on observation and experimentation. | |
| 289880627 | Structuralism | An early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind. | |
| 289880628 | Functionalism | A school of psychology that focused on how mental and behavioral processes function--how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish. | |
| 289880629 | Humanistic Psychology | Historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people; used personalized methods to study personality in hopes of fostering personal growth. | |
| 289880630 | Nature-Nurture Issue | The longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behavior. | |
| 289880631 | Natural Selection | The principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations. | |
| 289880632 | Level of Analysis | The differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon. | |
| 289880633 | Biopsychosocial Approach | An integrated perspective that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis. | |
| 289880634 | Basic Research | Pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base. | |
| 289880635 | Applied Research | Scientific study that aims to solve practical problems. | |
| 289880636 | Counseling Psychology | A branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being. | |
| 289880637 | Clinical Psychology | A branch of psychology that studies and assesses and treats people with psychological disorders. | |
| 289880638 | Psychiatry | A branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy. | |
| 289880639 | testosterone | male sex hormone, stimulates growth of male sex organs and sexual characteristics, found in both men and woman | |
| 289880640 | sexual response cycle | four stages of sexual responding; excitement, plateau, orgasm, resolution | |
| 289880641 | sexual orientation | sexual attraction towards same or opposite sex | |
| 289880642 | sexual disorder | a problem that consistently impairs arousal or functioning | |
| 289880643 | refractory period | resting period after an orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm | |
| 289880644 | estrogen | female sex hormone, promote sexual receptivity, in both males and females |
