This set of flash cards will help you understand and appropriately use psychological vocabulary terms frequently found in the multiple choice and free response sections of the AP Psychology exam 2nd Edition)
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| 5722393417 | Wilhelm Wundt | (1832-1920) set up the first psychological laboratory in an apartment near the university at Leipzip, Germany. Trained subjects in introspection. | 0 | |
| 5722393418 | Introspection | Technique used by Wilhelm Wundt who asked subjects to accurately record their cognitive reactions to simple stimuli. Through this process, Wundt hoped to examine basic mental processes. | 1 | |
| 5722393420 | Functionalism | Theory described by William James; Examines how the mental processes described by Wilhelm Wundt function in our lives | 2 | |
| 5722393424 | John Watson | (1878-1958) Declared that psychology must limit itself to observable phenomena, not unobervable concepts like the unconscious mind, if it is to be considered a science. | 3 | |
| 5722393425 | Ivan Pavlov | (1849-1936) Performed pioneering conditioning experiments on dogs; these experiments led to the development of the classical conditioning model of learning. | 4 | |
| 5722393426 | B.F. Skinner | (1904-1990) Expanded the basic ideas of behaviorism to include the idea of reinforcement and punishment- environmental stimuli that either encourage or discourage certain responses; helped establish and popularize the operant conditiong model of learning; skinner's intellectual influence lasted for decades | 5 | |
| 5722393428 | Humanist Perspective | the humanists, including theorists abraham maslow (1908-1970) and carl rogers (1902-1987), stressed individual choice and free will. this contrsts with the deterministic behaviorists who theorized that all behaviors are caused by past conditioning. Humanists believe that we choose most of our behaviors and that these choices are guided by physiological, emotional, or spiritual needs. | 6 | |
| 5722393429 | Psychoanalytic Perspective | Described by Sigmund Freud; psychoanalysts believe the unconscious mind-a part of our mind that we don't have conscious control over or access to-controls much of our thoughts and actions; psychoanalysts would look for impulses or memories pushed into the unconscious mind through repression;psychoanalysts think we must examine our unconscious mind through dream analysis, word association and other psychoanalytic therapy techniques in order to understand human thought and behavior. | 7 | |
| 5722393430 | Biopsychology Perspective | biopsychologists explain human thought and behavior strictly in terms of biological processes. neuroscientists believe that human cognition and reactions might be caused by effects of our genes, hormones, and neurotransmitters in the brain or by a combination of all three. | 8 | |
| 5722393431 | Evolutionary Perspective | evolutionary psychologists examine human thoughts and actions in terms of natural selection. Natural selection in this context refers to the idea that some psychological traits might be advatageous for survival and that these traits would be passed down from the parents to the next generation. similar to the bipsychology perspective | 9 | |
| 5722393432 | Behavioral Perspective | Behaviorists explain human thought and behavior in terms of conditioning (learning). Behaviorists look strictly at observable behaviors and what reaction organisms get in response to specific behaviors. dominant school of thought in psychology from the 1920s through the 1960s. | 10 | |
| 5722393433 | Cognitive Perspective | cognitive psychologists examine human thought and behavior in terms of how we interpret, process and remember environmental events. cognitive psychologists believe that the rules or methods we us to view the world are important to understanding why we think and behave the way we do. | 11 | |
| 5722393434 | Social-Cultural Perspective | social-cultural psychologists look at how our thoughts and behaviors vary from people living in other countries. sociocultural psychologists emphasize the influence culture has on the way we think and act. for example, social-cultural psychologists are interested in the emphasis some cultures place on the value of the group (collectivism) or the individual (individualism) | 12 | |
| 5722393438 | Hypothesis | A statement that expresses a relationship between two variables. | 13 | |
| 5722393439 | Theory | Aims to explain some phenomenon and allows researchers to generate testable hypotheses with the hope of collecting data that supports the theory. | 14 | |
| 5722393440 | Operational Definitions | An explanation of how variables are measures. | 15 | |
| 5722393441 | Validity | When research measures what the researcher set out to measure; it is accurate. A related concept is reliability. | 16 | |
| 5722393442 | Reliability | When research can be replicated and it is consistent. If the researcher conducted the same research in the same way, the researcher would get similar results. | 17 | |
| 5722393445 | Random Selection | A method of selection a sample from a population. Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. It increases the likelihood that the sample represents the population and that one can generalize the findings to a larger population. | 18 | |
| 5722393447 | Experiment | The only research that can show a casual relationship. Allows the researcher to manipulate the independent variable and control the confounding variables. It compares at least two groups: an experimental group and a control group that differ based on the independent variable. | 19 | |
| 5722393448 | Confounding Variables | Any difference between the experimental and control conditions (such as time of day), except for the independent variable, that might affect the dependent variable. Reduced by Random Assignment. | 20 | |
| 5722393449 | Random Assignment | The process by which participants are put into either an experimental group or a control group. This is used to reduce the effect of confounding variables. | 21 | |
| 5722393450 | Experimenter Bias | The unconscious tendency for researchers to treat member of the experimental and control groups differently to increase the chance of confirming their hypothesis. | 22 | |
| 5722393451 | Double-Blind Procedure | Method followed by such that neither the participants nor the researcher are aware of who is in the experimental or control groups while the experiment is going on. This controls experimenter bias and participant bias. | 23 | |
| 5722393454 | Correlation | A statistical measure of a relationship between two variables. Does not mean causation. | 24 | |
| 5722393455 | Scatter Plot | A graph of correlated data. The closer the points come to failing on a straight line, the stronger the correlation. | 25 | |
| 5722393456 | Survey Method | Often used to gather opinions or attitudes and for correlation research. Involves asking people to fill out a questionnaire. | 26 | |
| 5722393457 | Naturalistic Observation | Research method that involves observing participants in their natural habitats without interacting with them. The goal is to get a realistic and rich picture of the participants' behavior. Cannot establish cause and effect relationship between variables. | 27 | |
| 5722393458 | Case Study | A research method used to get a full and detailed picture of one participant or a small group of participants. Clinical psychologists often use this to present informations about a person suffering from a particular disorder. Allows researchers to get the richest possible picture of what they are studying, but the focus on a single individual or small group means that the findings cannot be generalized to a larger population. | 28 | |
| 5722393459 | Descriptive Statistics | Ways of describing a set of data. Three common measurements are the mean, median and mode. | 29 | |
| 5722393461 | Normal Curve | A bell-shaped curve that represents a distribution of scores that is normally distributed. Approximately 68 percent of scores in this fall within one standard deviation of the mean, approximately 95 percent of scores fall within two standard deviations of the mean and almost 99 percent of scores fall within three standard deviations of the mean. | 30 | |
| 5722393462 | Inferential Statistics | Statistics that can determine whether or not findings can be applied to the larger population from which the sample was selected.Statistics that form conclusions about the effect of the independent variable on variations in the dependent variable. | 31 | |
| 5722393463 | Statistical Significance | Scientists have decided that 5% is the cutoff for statistically significant results. This means that in an experiment design, there must be less than a 5% chance that the results occurred by chance. | 32 | |
| 5722393464 | APA Ethical Guidelines for Human Research | Any type of academic research must first propose the study to the ethics board or institutional review board (IRB) at the institution. Guidelines include: Coercion, Informed consent, Anonymity/confidentiality, Lack of risk, and Debriefing procedures. | 33 | |
| 5722393465 | APA Ethical Guidelines for Animal Research | Ethical psychological studies for animals must meet the following requirements: Have a clear scientific purpose, Care for and house animals in a humane way, Acquire animal subjects legally, Design experimental procedures that employ the least amount of suffering feasible. | 34 | |
| 5722393467 | neurons | individual nerve cells that make up our entire nervous system | 35 | |
| 5722393468 | dendrites | rootlike parts of the nerve cell that stretch out from the cell body; grow to make synaptic connections with other neurons | 36 | |
| 5722393469 | cell body (soma) | contains the nucleus and other parts of the cell needed to sustain its life | 37 | |
| 5722393470 | axon | wirelike structure ending in the terminal buttons that extends from the cell body | 38 | |
| 5722393471 | myelin sheath | a fatty covering around the axon that speeds neural impulses | 39 | |
| 5722393472 | terminal buttons | also called: end buttons, terminal branches of axon, synaptic knobs. the branched end of the axon that contains neurotransmitter | 40 | |
| 5722393474 | neurotransmitters | chemicals contained in terminal buttons that enable neurons to communicate | 41 | |
| 5722393475 | synapse | the space beween the terminal buttons of one neuron and the dendrites of the next neurons | 42 | |
| 5722393476 | action potential | the local voltage change across the cell wall as a nerve impulse is transmitted | 43 | |
| 5722393477 | function of acetylcholine | motor movement | 44 | |
| 5722393478 | lack of acetylcholine | Alzheimer's disease | 45 | |
| 5722393479 | function of dopamine | motor movement and alertness | 46 | |
| 5722393480 | lack of dopamine | Parkinson's disease | 47 | |
| 5722393481 | overabundance of dopamine | schizophrenia | 48 | |
| 5722393482 | function of endorphins | pain control; involved in addictions | 49 | |
| 5722393483 | function of serotonin | mood control | 50 | |
| 5722393484 | lack of serotonin | associated with clinical depression | 51 | |
| 5722393485 | afferent neurons | neurons that take information from the senses to the brain | 52 | |
| 5722393486 | interneurons | in the brain or spinal cord, neurons that take messages and send them elsewhere in the brain or spinal cord | 53 | |
| 5722393487 | efferent neurons | neurons that take information from the brain to the rest of the body | 54 | |
| 5722393488 | Central Nervous System | consists of the brain and spinal cord; nerves encased in bone | 55 | |
| 5722393490 | Peripheral Nervous System | consists of nerves not encased in bone. Divided into two categories: somatic and automatic nervous system | 56 | |
| 5722393493 | Somatic Nervous System | controls voluntary muscle movements | 57 | |
| 5722393495 | Autonomic Nervous System | controls the automatic functions of our body. divided into two categories: sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems | 58 | |
| 5722393498 | Sympathetic Nervous System | part of the Autonomic Nervous System. mobilizes our body to respond to stress | 59 | |
| 5722393501 | Parasympathetic Nervous System | part of the Autonomic Nervous System. slowing body down after a stress response | 60 | |
| 5722393508 | electroencephalogram (EEG) | detects brain waves, used in sleep research | 61 | |
| 5722393509 | Computerized Axial Tomography (CT) | a sophisticated 3D X ray of the brain | 62 | |
| 5722393510 | Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) | a sophisticated 3D magnetic field image of the brain | 63 | |
| 5722393511 | Portion Emission Tomography (PET) | measures how much of a certain chemical parts of the brain is using | 64 | |
| 5722393512 | Functional MRI | combination of MRI and PET | 65 | |
| 5722393514 | medulla | part of hindbrain | 66 | |
| 5722393515 | pons | part of hindbrain | 67 | |
| 5722393516 | cerebellum | part of hindbrain. Coordinates our balance and fine muscle movements | 68 | |
| 5722393518 | reticular formation | a netlike collection of cells throughout the hindbrain that controls general body arousal and he ability to focus our attention | 69 | |
| 5722393520 | thalamus | part of forebrain | 70 | |
| 5722393521 | hypothalamus | part of forebrain | 71 | |
| 5722393522 | amygdala and hippocampus | amygdala--fear; hippocampus- memory | 72 | |
| 5722393523 | limbic system | made up of thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala and hippocampus | 73 | |
| 5722393527 | corpus callosum | the nerve bundle that connects the two hemispheres; cut in split-brain patients. Used in treatment of epilepsy. | 74 | |
| 5722393528 | split-brain patients | patients whose corpus callosums have been cut | 75 | |
| 5722393530 | frontal lobes | part of the cerebral cortex | 76 | |
| 5722393531 | Broca's area | in the frontal lobe | 77 | |
| 5722393532 | motor cortex | in the frontal lobe | 78 | |
| 5722393533 | parietal lobes | contains sensory cortex (somato-sensory cortex) | 79 | |
| 5722393534 | sensory cortex (somato-sensory cortex) | receives incoming touch sensations from the rest of the body | 80 | |
| 5722393535 | occipital lobes | at the very back of the brain | 81 | |
| 5722393536 | temporal lobes | unlike occipital lobes, sound from either ear is processed in both temporal lobes | 82 | |
| 5722393537 | Wernicke's area | located in temporal lobe. Processes the understanding of speech. | 83 | |
| 5722393538 | brain plasticity | the ability of other parts of the brain to take over functions of damaged regions. Declines as hemispheres of the cerebral cortex lateralize. | 84 | |
| 5722393544 | Consciousness | Our level of awareness about ourselves and our environment. This is not an on/off switch. Psychologists refer to different levels and different states of this. | 85 | |
| 5722393546 | Sleep | A state of consciousness in which we are less aware of ourselves and our environment than we are in our normal awake state. We cycle through different stages of this during the night. Our brain waves and level of awareness change as we cycle through the stages. | 86 | |
| 5722393547 | Sleep Cycles | This is a typical pattern of sleep. Researchers use EEG machines record how active our brains are during sleep. We cycle through different stages of sleep during the night. Our brain waves slow down and our level of awareness lessens as we cycle down from sleep onset through stages 1 to 4. After a period of time in deep stage 3 and 4 sleep, our brains waves start to speed up, and we go back through stages 3 and 2. as we reach stage 1, our brain produces a period of intense activity, our eyes dart back and forth, and many of our muscles may twitch repeatedly. This is REM-rapid eye movement-sleep. | 87 | |
| 5722393549 | REM Sleep | Sometimes called paradoxical since our brain waves appear as active and intense as they do when we are awake. Purposes of REM sleep are not clear, but dreams usually occur in this stage.This stage sleep deprivation interferes with memory. The more stress we experience during the day, the longer our periods of this will be. Babies spend more total time sleeping than we do and they spend more time in this stage. As we age, our total need for sleep declines as does the amount of time we spend in this stage. | 88 | |
| 5722393551 | Insomnia | The most common sleep disorder. They have persistent problems getting to sleep or staying asleep at night. Usually treated with suggestions for changes in behavior: reduction of caffeine or other stimulants, exercise at appropriate times during the day, and maintaining a consistent sleep pattern. They are advised to use sleeping pills only with caution, as they disturb sleep patterns during the night and can prevent truly restful sleep. | 89 | |
| 5722393552 | Narcolepsy | A rare sleep disorder, occurring in less than 0.001 percent of the population. They suffer from periods of intense sleepiness and may fall asleep at unpredictable and inappropriate times. They may suddenly fall into REM sleep regardless of what they are doing at the time. They can be successfully treated with medication and a change in sleep patterns. | 90 | |
| 5722393553 | Sleep Apnea | May be almost as common as insomnia. Causes a person to stop breathing for short periods of time during the night. They body causes the person to wake up slightly and gasp for air, and then sleep continues. This process robs the person of deep sleep and causes tiredness and possible interference with attention and memory. Overweight men are at higher risk for this. Can be treated with a respiration machine that provides air for the sleeper. | 91 | |
| 5722393554 | Dreams | A series of story-like images we experience as we sleep. A difficult research area for psychologists because they rely almost entirely on self-report. If people are awakened during or shortly after a REM episode, they often report they were dreaming. Validating theories about the purposes and meanings of dreams is difficult because researchers currently have limited access to dreams. During sleep, people are paralyzed in the dream state so they do act out their dreams. | 92 | |
| 5722393555 | Freudian Dream Interpretation | According to psychoanalysis, a method to uncover the repressed information in the unconscious mind. Freud said that dreams were wish fulfilling, meaning that we act out our unconscious desires in our dreams. Manifest content is the literal content of our dream. Latent content is the unconscious meaning of the manifest content. The ego protects dreamers from the material in the unconscious mind (protected sleep) by presenting these repressed desires in the form of symbols. | 93 | |
| 5722393562 | Psychoactive Drugs | Chemicals that change the chemistry of the brain (and the rest of the body) and induce an altered state of consciousness. Some of the behavioral and cognitive changes caused by these drugs are due to physiological processes, but some are due to expectations about the drug. All of these drugs change our consciousness through similar physiological processes in the brain. The brain will produce less of a specific neurotransmitter if it is being artificially supplied by a drug. | 94 | |
| 5722393563 | Agonists | Drugs that mimic neurotransmitters. Fit in the receptor sites on a neuron that normally receive the neurotransmitter. Function as that neurotransmitter normally would. | 95 | |
| 5722393564 | Antagonists | Drugs that block neurotransmitters. Fit into receptor sites on a neuron. Instead of acting like the neurotransmitter, they prevent natural neurotransmitter from using the receptor site. | 96 | |
| 5722393565 | Tolerance | The brain will produce less of a specific neurotransmitter if it is being artificially supplied by a psychoactive drug. This physiological change produces tolerance, a need for more of the same drug in order to achieve the same effect. Will eventually cause withdrawal symptoms in users. | 97 | |
| 5722393566 | Withdrawal | Occurs as a consequence of drug use. Symptoms vary from drug to drug. Dependence on psychoactive drugs can be psychological, physical, or both. Psychologically dependent individuals feel an intense desire for the drug; they are convinced they need it in order to perform or feel a certain way. Physically dependent individuals have tolerance for the drug, experience symptoms without it and need the drug to avoid the symptoms. | 98 | |
| 5722393567 | Stimulants | Speed up body processes, including autonomic nervous system functions such as heart and respiration rate. This dramatic increase is accompanied by a sense of euphoria. Caffeine, cocaine, amphetamines, and nicotine are some. All of these produce tolerance, withdrawal effects and other side effects. | 99 | |
| 5722393568 | Depressants | Slow down body processes, including our reaction and judgment, by slowing down brain processes. Common ones include alcohol, barbiturates and anxiolytics. Euphoria accompanies the depressing effects of these, and continued use leads to tolerance and withdrawal symptoms. | 100 | |
| 5722393569 | Hallucinogens | Cause changes in perceptions of reality, including sensory hallucinations, loss of identity and vivid fantasies. Common ones are LSD, peyote, psilocybin mushrooms, and marijuana. May remain in the body for weeks. If an individual ingests the hallucinogen again during this time period, the new dose of the chemical is added to the lingering amount, creating more profound and potentially dangerous effects. This effect is sometimes called reverse tolerance. Effects are less predictable than those of stimulants or depressants. | 101 | |
| 5722393570 | Opiates | Common ones include morphine, heroin, methadone and codeine, all of which are similar in chemical structure to opium. Act as agonists for endorphins and thus are powerful painkillers and mood elevators. Cause drowsiness and a euphoria associated with elevated endorphin levels. Some of the most physically addictive drugs because they rapidly change brain chemistry and create tolerance and withdrawal symptoms. | 102 | |
| 5722393571 | transduction | the process in which signals are transformed into neural impulses | 103 | |
| 5722393572 | cocktail-party phenomenon | when your attention involuntarily switches (someone calls your name) | 104 | |
| 5722393573 | cornea | a protective covering of the eye | 105 | |
| 5722393574 | pupil | dilates and becomes smaller to allow the right amount of light into your eye | 106 | |
| 5722393575 | lens | curved and flexible in order to focus the light | 107 | |
| 5722393576 | retina | a screen on the back of your eye | 108 | |
| 5722393577 | cones | cells activated by color | 109 | |
| 5722393578 | rods | cells that respond to black and white | 110 | |
| 5722393579 | fovea | located at the center of your retina and contains the highest concentration of cones | 111 | |
| 5722393580 | ganglion cells | their axons make up the optic nerve that sends visual impulses to the lateral geniculate nucleus in the thalamus | 112 | |
| 5722393582 | blind spot | where the optic nerve leaves the retina, calls such because has no rods or cones | 113 | |
| 5722393583 | optic chasm | the place nerves from both eyes join and cross over within the brain | 114 | |
| 5722393584 | feature detectors | discovered by Hubel and Weisel, nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement | 115 | |
| 5722393585 | trichromatic theory | there are three types of cones in the retina (blue, red and green) that activate in different combinations to produce all the colors of the visible spectrum | 116 | |
| 5722393586 | afterimage | an image (usually a negative image) that persists after stimulation has ceased | 117 | |
| 5722393587 | opponent-process theory | the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green. this is supported by the use of afterimages. | 118 | |
| 5722393588 | amplitude | the height of a sound wave, measured in decibels | 119 | |
| 5722393589 | frequency | the length of the waves and determines pitch, measured in megahertz | 120 | |
| 5722393590 | order of sound in your ear | ear canal -> eardrum/tympanic membrane -> hammer (malleus bone) -> anvil (incus bone) -> stirrup (stapes bone) -> oval window -> cochlea (snail's shell filled with fluid) -> hair at bottom of cochlea -> organ of Corti (neurons activated by the hair) -> auditory nerve | 121 | |
| 5722393591 | place theory | hair cells in the cochlea respond to different frequencies of sound based on where they are located in the cochlea | 122 | |
| 5722393592 | frequency theory | place theory works for high frequency sounds, but not low frequency. hair cells fire at different rates in the cochlea | 123 | |
| 5722393594 | conduction deafness | something goes wrong with the system of conducting sound to the cochlea | 124 | |
| 5722393595 | nerve (sensorineural) deafness | when the hair cells in the cochlea are damaged, usually by loud noise | 125 | |
| 5722393596 | gate-control theory | when a higher priority pain message coincides with a lower priority pain message, only the higher one will be felt | 126 | |
| 5722393597 | papillae | the bumps on your tongue | 127 | |
| 5722393598 | olfactory bulb | one of two enlargements at the terminus of the olfactory nerve at the base of the brain just above the nasal cavities | 128 | |
| 5722393599 | vestibular sense | how our body is oriented in space | 129 | |
| 5722393600 | kinesthetic sense | the position and orientation of specific body parts | 130 | |
| 5722393601 | absolute threshold | the smallest amount of stimulus we can detect | 131 | |
| 5722393602 | subliminal | stimuli below absolute threshold | 132 | |
| 5722393603 | difference threshold (just-noticeable difference) | the smallest amount of change needed in a stimulus before we can detect a change. computed by Weber's law | 133 | |
| 5722393605 | Weber's law | the change needed to make a noticeable difference to something is proportional to the original intensity of the stimulus | 134 | |
| 5722393606 | signal detection theory | a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus ("signal") amid background stimulation ("noise"). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and level of fatigue. | 135 | |
| 5722393610 | top-down processing | information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions | 136 | |
| 5722393612 | perceptual set | a predisposition to perceiving something in a certain way | 137 | |
| 5722393614 | bottom-up processing (feature analysis) | we use only the features of the object itself to perceive it | 138 | |
| 5722393615 | figure-ground relationship | A Gestalt principle of perceptual organization that states that we automatically separate the elements of a perception into the feature that clearly stands out and its less distinct background. | 139 | |
| 5722393616 | constancy | the ability to maintain a constant perception of an object despite changes in direct appearance | 140 | |
| 5722393617 | visual cliff experiment | created by E.J. Gibson, used to determine when infants can perceive depth | 141 | |
| 5722393618 | Muller-Lyer illusion | demonstrates that some perceptual rules are learned from culture | 142 | |
| 5722393622 | Phi Phenomenon | The perception of movement as a result of sequential presentation of visual stimuli | 143 | |
| 5722393624 | Monocular Cues | Not dependent on two eyes | 144 | |
| 5722393625 | Binocular Cues | Depend on two eyes | 145 | |
| 5722393626 | Learning | A long-lasting change in behavior resulting from experience. | 146 | |
| 5722393627 | Acquisition | Acquiring a new behavior | 147 | |
| 5722393628 | Extinction | When the CS no longer elicits the CR. | 148 | |
| 5722393629 | Spontaneous Recovery | After a conditioned response has been extinguished, the response briefly reappears upon presentation of the conditioned stimulus. | 149 | |
| 5722393630 | Generalization | The tendency to respond to similar conditioned stimuli | 150 | |
| 5722393631 | Discrimination | To tell the difference between various stimuli. | 151 | |
| 5722393632 | Classical Conditioning | A type of learning in which an organism comes to associate a neutral stimulus to a response. Also called Pavlovian or respondent conditioning. Learning based on association of stimuli. | 152 | |
| 5722393633 | Unconditioned Stimulus | A stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response. | 153 | |
| 5722393634 | Unconditioned Response | The unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus | 154 | |
| 5722393635 | Conditioned Stimulus | An originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response. | 155 | |
| 5722393636 | Conditioned Response | The learned response to a previously neutral but now conditioned stimulus. | 156 | |
| 5722393638 | Second-Order or Higher-Order Conditioning | Once a conditioned stimulus elicits a conditioned response, it is possible to use that conditioned stimulus as an unconditioned stimulus in order to condition a response to a new stimulus | 157 | |
| 5722393639 | Learned Taste Aversion | Negative reaction to a particular taste that has been associated with nausea or other illness. | 158 | |
| 5722393640 | Operant Conditioning | Learning based on association of consequences with one's behavior | 159 | |
| 5722393641 | Law of Effect | If the consequences of a behavior are pleasant, the stimulus-response connection will strengthen and the likelihood of the behavior will increase. If the consequences of a behavior are unpleasant, the stimulus-response connection will weaken and the likelihood of the behavior will decrease. | 160 | |
| 5722393643 | Skinner Box | A contraption used to research animal learning of operant conditioning | 161 | |
| 5722393644 | Reinforcer | Anything that makes a behavior more likely to occur | 162 | |
| 5722393646 | Positive Reinforcement | The addition of something pleasant | 163 | |
| 5722393647 | Negative Reinforcement | The removal of something unpleasant | 164 | |
| 5722393648 | Punishment | Anything that makes a behavior less likely | 165 | |
| 5722393651 | Shaping | Reinforces the steps used to reach the desired behavior | 166 | |
| 5722393653 | Primary Reinforcers | Reinforcers that are rewarding such as food, water, and rest. Their natural properties are reinforcing. | 167 | |
| 5722393654 | Secondary Reinforcers | Thing we have learned to value such as praise or the chance to play a video | 168 | |
| 5722393657 | Reinforcement Schedules | Determines when reinforcement is delivered by ratio or interval schedules. Also determines when reinforcement is delivered by a constant (fixed) or changing (variable) schedules. | 169 | |
| 5722393659 | Fixed Interval (FI) | Requires that a certain amount of time elapse before a reward will result. | 170 | |
| 5722393660 | Fixed Ratio (FR) | Provides reinforcement after a set number of responses. | 171 | |
| 5722393661 | Variable Interval (VI) | Requires varying amount of time elapse before a reward will result. | 172 | |
| 5722393662 | Variable Ratio (VR) | Provides reinforcement based on a varying number of responses. | 173 | |
| 5722393663 | Continuous Reinforcement | Rewarding a behavior each time | 174 | |
| 5722393666 | Observational Learning or Modeling | People and animals learn many things by observing others and imitating | 175 | |
| 5722393667 | Latent Learning | Learning that becomes obvious only once a reinforcement is given for demonstrating it. | 176 | |
| 5722393668 | Insight Learning | Occurs when one suddenly realizes how to solve a problem; an "AH-HA" moment. | 177 | |
| 5722393669 | Ivan Pavlov | A Russian researcher in the early 1900s who was the first research learned behavior and discovered classical conditioning. | 178 | |
| 5722393670 | John Watson | Conditioned a little boy, Albert, to fear a white rat by pairing the once likable rat to a loud noise. | 179 | |
| 5722393671 | Edward Thorndike | Created the law of effect by researching operant conditioning. | 180 | |
| 5722393672 | B.F. Skinner | Coined the term operant conditioning and is the best-known psychologist to research this form of learning. | 181 | |
| 5722393673 | Albert Bandura | Stated that people profit from the mistakes/successes of others by observing Bobo Dolls where adults demonstrated "appropriate" play with dolls and children mimicked play. | 182 | |
| 5722393674 | Memory | any indication that learning has persisted over time | 183 | |
| 5722393676 | Sensory memory | the split-second holding tank for incoming sensory information | 184 | |
| 5722393677 | Iconic memory | type of sensory memory that is a split-second perfect photograph of a scene | 185 | |
| 5722393678 | Echoic memory | type of sensory memory that is a brief (3-4 sec) perfect memory of sounds | 186 | |
| 5722393679 | Selective attention | the process by which one can pick out different encoding for encoding | 187 | |
| 5722393680 | Short-term/working memory | the information one is currently working with and is aware of in one's consciousness | 188 | |
| 5722393681 | Chunking | the grouping of information to aid short-term memory (no more than 7 groups) | 189 | |
| 5722393682 | Mnemonic devices | memory aids | 190 | |
| 5722393683 | Rehearsal | the repetition of information to aid short-term memory | 191 | |
| 5722393684 | Long-term memory | permanent storage of information | 192 | |
| 5722393685 | Episodic memory | type of long-term memory that involves specific events, stored in a sequential series | 193 | |
| 5722393686 | Semantic memory | type of long-term memory that involves general knowledge, stored as facts, meanings, or categories | 194 | |
| 5722393687 | Procedural memory | type of long-term memory that involves the performance of skills, stored sequentially, but complicated to describe with words | 195 | |
| 5722393688 | Explicit/declarative memories | the conscious memories of facts or events that we actively try to remember | 196 | |
| 5722393689 | Implicit/nondeclarative memories | the unintentional memories we might not realize we have | 197 | |
| 5722393692 | Shallowly/maintenance processed | processing that involves meaningless rehearsal that leads to short-term retention | 198 | |
| 5722393693 | Deeply/elaborately processing | processing information in a meaningful way that increases its likelihood of being stored in memory | 199 | |
| 5722393694 | Retrieval | the gathering of information out of memory so that it can be used | 200 | |
| 5722393695 | Recognition | type of retrieval that is the process of matching a current event or fact with one already in memory | 201 | |
| 5722393696 | Recall | type of retrieval that retrieves a memory with an external cue | 202 | |
| 5722393697 | Primacy effect | the prediction that we are more likely to recall items presented at the beginning of a list | 203 | |
| 5722393698 | Recency effect | the prediction that we are more likely to recall items presented at the end of a list | 204 | |
| 5722393699 | Serial position effect/curve | the prediction that we are more likely to recall items presented at the beginning or the end of a list, but forget items in the middle | 205 | |
| 5722393700 | Tip-of-the-tongue-phenomenon | the temporary inability to remember information | 206 | |
| 5722393702 | Flashbulb memories | detailed snapshots of the moment and circumstances surrounding the moment shocking information was heard | 207 | |
| 5722393704 | State-dependent memory | phenomenon where there is a greater likelihood of recalling events while in a particular state of consciousness | 208 | |
| 5722393707 | Decay | a cause of forgetting when we do not use a memory or its connections for a long time | 209 | |
| 5722393709 | Interference | a cause of forgetting where other information in your memory competes with what you want to recall | 210 | |
| 5722393710 | Retroactive interference | interference where the learning of new information interferes with the recall of older information | 211 | |
| 5722393711 | Proactive interference | interference where older information learned interferes with the recall of the more recent information | 212 | |
| 5722393712 | Hippocampus | part of the brain that encodes new memories | 213 | |
| 5722393713 | Anterograde amnesia | the inability to encode new memories | 214 | |
| 5722393714 | Retrograde amnesia | the loss of all memories before the trauma | 215 | |
| 5722393716 | Phonemes | the smallest units of sound used in a language | 216 | |
| 5722393717 | Morpheme | the smallest unit of meaningful sound | 217 | |
| 5722393718 | Syntax | the arrangement of words in a sentence to make sense | 218 | |
| 5722393719 | Language acquisition | the process by which humans acquire the capacity to communicate in a language | 219 | |
| 5722393723 | Overgeneralization/overregularization | the misapplication of grammar rules | 220 | |
| 5722393724 | Nativist theory of language acquisition | theory that children are born with a language acquisition device: Chomsky | 221 | |
| 5722393725 | Language acquisition device | the part of the brain that allows rapid language learning: Chomsky | 222 | |
| 5722393726 | Linguistic relativity hypothesis | theory that the language we use might control or limit our thinking. Language shapes a culture's concepts and thought processes.Whorf | 223 | |
| 5722393730 | Algorithm | a rule that guarantees the right solution by using a formula | 224 | |
| 5722393731 | Heuristic | rule that is generally, but not always true that we can just to make a judgement in a situation | 225 | |
| 5722393732 | Availability heuristic | heuristics that involves judging a situation based on examples of similar situations that initially come to mind | 226 | |
| 5722393733 | Representativeness heuristic | heuristics that involves judging a situation based on how similar the aspects are to prototypes the person holds in his/her mind | 227 | |
| 5722393734 | Overconfidence | the tendency to overestimate how accurate our judgements are | 228 | |
| 5722393737 | mental set | the tendency to fall into established thought patterns | 229 | |
| 5722393738 | Functional fixedness | type of rigidity that involves the inability to see a new use for an object | 230 | |
| 5722393739 | Confirmation bias | bias where we tend to look for evidence that confirms our beliefs and ignore evidence that contradicts what we think is true | 231 | |
| 5722393740 | Framing | the way a problem is presented | 232 | |
| 5722393825 | Manifest Content | according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream | 233 | |
| 5722393826 | Latent Content | according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream | 234 | |
| 5722393841 | Flooding | A behavioral technique used to treat phobias in which the client is presented with the feared stimulus until the associated anxiety disappears. Clients address their most frightening scenario first. | 235 | |
| 5722393842 | Aversive Conditioning | a type of counterconditioning that associates an unpleasant state (such as nausea) with an unwanted behavior (such as drinking alcohol). | 236 | |
| 5722393843 | Token Economy | an operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange the tokens for various privileges or treats. | 237 | |
| 5745012338 | Linear Perspective | Monocular Depth Cue used to make judgments of distance | 238 | |
| 5745021010 | Endorphins | increases feeling of energy and happiness; well being | 239 | |
| 5745081063 | Cognitive Map | mental image of spatial layout | 240 | |
| 5745094838 | meta-analysis | analyzing the results of several other studies compared to your study results. | 241 | |
| 5745126017 | sensory interaction | the combination of senses working together i.e. smell and taste | 242 | |
| 5745160949 | Self-Reference Effect | personally relevant information leads to better recall in memory | 243 | |
| 5745197772 | Priming | is an implicit memory effect in which exposure to one stimulus (i.e., perceptual pattern) influences the response to another stimulus. | 244 | |
| 5745234307 | Supertaster | person who experiences the sense of taste with far greater intensity than average, with some studies shown an increased sensitivity to bitter tastes. | 245 |
