Chapters 1-9
Terms : Hide Images
| 5589431581 | psychology | the scientific study of behavior and mental processes | 0 | |
| 5589431582 | empiricism | the view that (a) knowledge comes from experience via the senses, (b) science flourishes through observation and experiment | 1 | |
| 5589431583 | structuralism | an early school of psycholgy that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind | 2 | |
| 5589431584 | functionalism | a school of psychology that focused on how mental and behavioral processes function - how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish | 3 | |
| 5589431585 | humanistic psychology | historically signifficant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people; used personalized methods to study personality in hopes of fostering personal growth | 4 | |
| 5589431586 | nature-nurture issue | the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development or psychological traits and behaviors | 5 | |
| 5589431587 | natural selection | the principle that among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributong to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations | 6 | |
| 5589431589 | biopsychosocial approach | an integrated perspective that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis | 7 | |
| 5589431591 | applied research | scientific study that aims to solve practical problems | 8 | |
| 5589431592 | counseling psychology | a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater wellbeing | 9 | |
| 5589431593 | clinical psychology | a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders | 10 | |
| 5589431594 | psychiatry | a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical treatments(for example, drug) as well as psychological therapies | 11 | |
| 5589431595 | hindsight bias | the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it (also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon) | 12 | |
| 5589431596 | critical thinking | thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions - rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions | 13 | |
| 5589431597 | theory | an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observations | 14 | |
| 5589431598 | hypothesis | a testable prediction, often implied by a theory | 15 | |
| 5589431599 | operational definition | a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables | 16 | |
| 5589431600 | replication | repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances | 17 | |
| 5589431601 | case study | an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles | 18 | |
| 5589431602 | survey | a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them | 19 | |
| 5589431603 | false consensus effect | the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors | 20 | |
| 5589431604 | population | all the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study | 21 | |
| 5589431605 | random sample | a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion | 22 | |
| 5589431606 | naturalistic observation | observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation | 23 | |
| 5589431607 | correlation coefficient | a statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other | 24 | |
| 5589431608 | scatterplot | a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables | 25 | |
| 5589431609 | illusory correlation | the perception of a relationship where none exists | 26 | |
| 5589431610 | experiment | a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process | 27 | |
| 5589431611 | double-blind procedure | an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or the placebo | 28 | |
| 5589431612 | placebo effect | experimental results caused by expectations alone | 29 | |
| 5589431613 | experimental condition | the condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable | 30 | |
| 5589431614 | control condition | the condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental condition and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment | 31 | |
| 5589431615 | random assignment | assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to different groups | 32 | |
| 5589431616 | independent variable | the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied | 33 | |
| 5589431617 | dependent variable | the experimental factor that is being measured; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable | 34 | |
| 5589431618 | mode | the most frequently occurring score in a distribution | 35 | |
| 5589431619 | mean | the arithmetic average of a distribution | 36 | |
| 5589431620 | median | the middle score in a distribution | 37 | |
| 5589431621 | range | the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution | 38 | |
| 5589431622 | standard deviation | a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score | 39 | |
| 5589431623 | statistical significance | a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance | 40 | |
| 5589431626 | neuron | a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system | 41 | |
| 5589431627 | axon | the extention of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands | 42 | |
| 5589431628 | myelin sheath | a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next | 43 | |
| 5589431629 | action potential | a neural impulse; a breif electrical charge that travels down an axon | 44 | |
| 5589431630 | threshold | the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse | 45 | |
| 5589431631 | synapse | the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron | 46 | |
| 5589431632 | neurotransmitters | chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic gap between neurons | 47 | |
| 5589431633 | acetylcholine | a neurotransmitter that, among its functions, triggers muscle contraction | 48 | |
| 5589431634 | endorphins | natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and pleasure | 49 | |
| 5589431635 | nervous system | the body's speedy, electrochemical communication system, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems | 50 | |
| 5589431636 | central nervous system | the brain and spinal cord | 51 | |
| 5589431637 | peripheral nervous system | the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body | 52 | |
| 5589431638 | nerves | neural "cables" containing many axons | 53 | |
| 5589431639 | sensory neurons | neurons that carry incoming information from the sense receptors to the central nervous system | 54 | |
| 5589431640 | interneurons | central nervous system neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs | 55 | |
| 5589431641 | motor neurons | neurons that carry outgoing information from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands | 56 | |
| 5589431642 | somatic nervous system | the division of the perihperal nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles | 57 | |
| 5589431643 | autonomic nervous system | the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs | 58 | |
| 5589431644 | sympathetic nervous system | the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations | 59 | |
| 5589431645 | parasympathetic nervous system | the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy | 60 | |
| 5589431646 | reflex | a simple, automatic, inborn response to a sensory stimulus | 61 | |
| 5589431647 | neural networks | interconnected neural cells - with experience, networks can learn | 62 | |
| 5589431648 | lesion | tissue destruction | 63 | |
| 5589431649 | electroencephalogram (EEG) | an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface - these waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp | 64 | |
| 5589431650 | CT (computed tomography) scan | a series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body | 65 | |
| 5589431651 | PET (positron emission tomography) scan | a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task | 66 | |
| 5589431652 | MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) | a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue | 67 | |
| 5589431653 | brainstem | the oldest part and central coe of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; responsible for automatic survival functions | 68 | |
| 5589431654 | medulla | the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing | 69 | |
| 5589431655 | reticular formation | a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal | 70 | |
| 5589431656 | thalamus | the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla | 71 | |
| 5589431657 | cerebellum | the "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; it helps coordinate voluntary movement and balance | 72 | |
| 5589431658 | limbic system | a doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions such as fear and agression and drives such as those for food and sex | 73 | |
| 5589431659 | amygdala | two almond-shaped neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion | 74 | |
| 5589431660 | hypothalamus | a neural struture lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities, helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion | 75 | |
| 5589431661 | cerebral cortex | the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center | 76 | |
| 5589431662 | glial cells | cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons | 77 | |
| 5589431663 | frontal lobes | the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; invloved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments | 78 | |
| 5589431664 | parietal lobes | the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; includes the sensory cortex | 79 | |
| 5589431665 | occipital lobes | the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes the visual areas, which receive visual information from the opposite visual field | 80 | |
| 5589431666 | temporal lobes | the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each of which receives auditory information primarily from the opposite ear | 81 | |
| 5589431667 | motor cortex | an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements | 82 | |
| 5589431668 | sensory cortex | the area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body sensations | 83 | |
| 5589431669 | association areas | areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking | 84 | |
| 5589431670 | aphasia | impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (imparing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (imparing understanding) | 85 | |
| 5589431671 | Broca's area | controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech | 86 | |
| 5589431672 | Wernicke's area | controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe | 87 | |
| 5589431673 | plasticity | the brain's capacity for modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage (especially in children) and in experiments on the effects of experience on brain development | 88 | |
| 5589431674 | corpus callosum | the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them | 89 | |
| 5589431675 | split brain | a condition in which the two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the connecting fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) between them | 90 | |
| 5589431676 | endocrine system | the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream | 91 | |
| 5589431677 | hormones | chemical messengers, mostly those manufactured by the endocrine system, that are produced in one tissue and affect another | 92 | |
| 5589431678 | adrenal glands | a pair of endocrine glands just above the kidneys that secrete the hormones epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline), which help to arouse the body in times of stress | 93 | |
| 5589431679 | pituitary gland | the endocrine system's most influential gland - under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands | 94 | |
| 5589431680 | chromosomes | threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes | 95 | |
| 5589431681 | DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) | a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes | 96 | |
| 5589431682 | genes | the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; a segment of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein | 97 | |
| 5589431683 | genome | the complete instructions for making an organism, containing all the genetic material in its chromosomes | 98 | |
| 5589431684 | mutation | a random error in gene replication that leads to a change in the sequence of nucleotides; the source of all genetic diversity | 99 | |
| 5589431685 | evolutionay psychology | the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principals of natural selection | 100 | |
| 5589431687 | behavior genetics | the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior | 101 | |
| 5589431688 | environment | every nongenetic influence, from prenatal to the people and things around us | 102 | |
| 5589431689 | identical twins | twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms | 103 | |
| 5589431690 | fraternal twins | twins who develop from separate eggs - they are geneticaly no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment | 104 | |
| 5589431691 | temperament | a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity | 105 | |
| 5589431692 | heritability | the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes - the heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied | 106 | |
| 5589431705 | social learning theory | the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished | 107 | |
| 5589431719 | cognition | All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating | 108 | |
| 5589431742 | cross-sectional study | A study in which people of different ages are compared with one another | 109 | |
| 5589431743 | longitudinal study | Research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period | 110 | |
| 5589431747 | sensation | The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment | 111 | |
| 5589431748 | perception | The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events | 112 | |
| 5589431749 | bottom-up processing | Analysis that begins with the sense receptors and works up to te brain's integration of sensory information | 113 | |
| 5589431750 | top-down processing | Information processing guided by higher-level mental processes | 114 | |
| 5589431751 | psychophysics | The study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli and our psychological experience of them | 115 | |
| 5589431752 | absolute threshold | The minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time | 116 | |
| 5589431753 | signal detection theory | A theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus amid background noise | 117 | |
| 5589431754 | subliminal | Below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness | 118 | |
| 5589431755 | difference threshold | The minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time | 119 | |
| 5589431756 | Weber's law | The principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage | 120 | |
| 5589431757 | sensory adaptation | Diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation | 121 | |
| 5589431758 | transduction | Conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies into neural impulses | 122 | |
| 5589431759 | wavelength | The distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next | 123 | |
| 5589431760 | hue | The dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light (blue, green, red, etc.) | 124 | |
| 5589431761 | intensity | The amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude | 125 | |
| 5589431762 | pupil | The adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters | 126 | |
| 5589431763 | iris | A ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening | 127 | |
| 5589431764 | lens | The transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina | 128 | |
| 5589431765 | accommodation | The process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina | 129 | |
| 5589431766 | retina | The light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information | 130 | |
| 5589431767 | acuity | The sharpness of vision | 131 | |
| 5589431768 | nearsightedness | A condition in which nearby objects are seen more clearly than distant objects because distant objects focus in front of the retina | 132 | |
| 5589431769 | farsightedness | A condition in which faraway objects are seen more clearly than near objects because the image of near objects is focused behind the retina | 133 | |
| 5589431770 | rods | Retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond | 134 | |
| 5589431771 | cones | Receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions; detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations | 135 | |
| 5589431772 | optic nerve | The nerve that carries neural impulses from the eyes to the brain | 136 | |
| 5589431773 | blind spot | The point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there | 137 | |
| 5589431774 | fovea | The central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster | 138 | |
| 5589431775 | feature detectors | Nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement | 139 | |
| 5589431776 | parallel processing | The processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously | 140 | |
| 5589431777 | Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory | The theory that the retina contains three different color receptors (red, green, blue) which when stimulated in combination can produce the perception of any color | 141 | |
| 5589431778 | opponent-process theory | The theory that opposing retinal processes enable color vision | 142 | |
| 5589431779 | color constancy | Perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object | 143 | |
| 5589431780 | audition | The sense of hearing | 144 | |
| 5589431781 | frequency | The number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time | 145 | |
| 5589431782 | pitch | A tone's highness or lowness; depends on frequency | 146 | |
| 5589431783 | middle ear | The chamber between the eardrum and the cochlea containing three tiny bones that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window | 147 | |
| 5589431784 | inner ear | The innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs | 148 | |
| 5589431785 | cochlea | A coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses | 149 | |
| 5589431786 | place theory | In hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated | 150 | |
| 5589431787 | frequency theory | In hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch | 151 | |
| 5589431788 | conduction hearing loss | Hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea | 152 | |
| 5589431789 | sensorineural hearing loss | Hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves | 153 | |
| 5589431790 | gate-control theory | The theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain - the "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain | 154 | |
| 5589431791 | sensory interaction | The principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste | 155 | |
| 5589431792 | kinesthesis | The system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts | 156 | |
| 5589431793 | vestibular sense | The sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance | 157 | |
| 5589431794 | selective attention | The focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus, as in the cocktail party effect | 158 | |
| 5589431795 | visual capture | The tendency for vision to dominate the other senses | 159 | |
| 5589431796 | gestalt | An organized whole - gestalt psychologists emphasize our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes | 160 | |
| 5589431797 | figure-ground | The organization of the visual field into objects that stand out from their surroundings | 161 | |
| 5589431799 | depth perception | The ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance | 162 | |
| 5589431800 | visual cliff | A laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals | 163 | |
| 5589431801 | binocular cues | Depth cues that depend on the use of two eyes | 164 | |
| 5589431802 | monocular cues | Distance cues available to either eye alone | 165 | |
| 5589431803 | retinal disparity | A binocular cue for perceiving depth; by comparing images from the two eyeballs, the brain computes distance - the greater the disparity between the two images, the closer the object | 166 | |
| 5589431804 | convergence | A binocular cue for perceiving depth; the extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object | 167 | |
| 5589431805 | phi phenomenon | An illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in succession | 168 | |
| 5589431806 | perceptual constancy | Perceiving objects as unchanging even as illumination and retinal images change | 169 | |
| 5589431807 | perceptual adaptation | In vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or inverted visual field | 170 | |
| 5589431808 | perceptual set | A mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another | 171 | |
| 5589431809 | human factors psychology | A branch of psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be adapted to human behaviors | 172 | |
| 5589431810 | extrasensory perception (ESP) | The controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input - said to include telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition | 173 | |
| 5589431811 | parapsychology | The study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis | 174 | |
| 5589431812 | consciousness | Our awareness of ourselves and our environment | 175 | |
| 5589431813 | biological rhythms | Periodic physiological fluctuations | 176 | |
| 5589431814 | circadian rhythm | The biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle | 177 | |
| 5589431815 | REM sleep | Rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur | 178 | |
| 5589431816 | alpha waves | The relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state | 179 | |
| 5589431817 | sleep | Periodic, natural, reversible loss of consciousness - as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation | 180 | |
| 5589431818 | hallucinations | False sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus | 181 | |
| 5589431819 | delta waves | The large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep | 182 | |
| 5589431820 | insomnia | Recurring problems in falling or staying asleep | 183 | |
| 5589431821 | narcolepsy | A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks | 184 | |
| 5589431822 | sleep apnea | A sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and consequent momentary reawakenings | 185 | |
| 5589431823 | night terrors | A sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; occur during Stage 4 sleep and are seldom remembered | 186 | |
| 5589431824 | dream | A sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind | 187 | |
| 5589431825 | manifest content | According to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream | 188 | |
| 5589431826 | latent content | According to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream | 189 | |
| 5589431827 | REM rebound | The tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation | 190 | |
| 5589431828 | hypnosis | A social interaction in which one person suggests to another that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur | 191 | |
| 5589431829 | posthypnotic amnesia | Supposed inability to recall what one experienced during hypnosis; induced by the hypnotist's suggestion | 192 | |
| 5589431830 | posthypnoyic suggestion | A suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized | 193 | |
| 5589431831 | dissociation | A split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts to occur simultaneously with others | 194 | |
| 5589431833 | psychoactive drug | A chemical substance that alters perceptions and mood | 195 | |
| 5589431834 | tolerance | The diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect | 196 | |
| 5589431835 | withdrawal | The discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug | 197 | |
| 5589431836 | physical dependence | A physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued | 198 | |
| 5589431837 | psychological dependence | A psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions | 199 | |
| 5589431838 | depressants | Drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions | 200 | |
| 5589431839 | stimulants | Drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions | 201 | |
| 5589431840 | hallucinogens | Psychedelic drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory imput | 202 | |
| 5589431841 | barbiturates | Drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but imparing memory and judgment | 203 | |
| 5589431842 | opiates | Drugs that depress neural activity, temporarily lessenging pain and anxiety | 204 | |
| 5589431843 | amphetamines | Drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes | 205 | |
| 5589431844 | ecstasy (MDMA) | A synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen; produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition | 206 | |
| 5589431845 | LSD | A powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid | 207 | |
| 5589431846 | THC | The major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations | 208 | |
| 5589431888 | learning | A relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience | 209 | |
| 5589431889 | associative learning | Learning that certain events occur together - the events may be two stimuli or a response and its consequence | 210 | |
| 5589431890 | classical conditioning | A type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli | 211 | |
| 5589431891 | behaviorism | The view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes | 212 | |
| 5589431892 | unconditioned response (UCR) | In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occuring response to the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) | 213 | |
| 5589431893 | unconditioned stimulus (UCS) | In classical conditioning, a stimulus that uncondiionally - naturally and automatically - triggers a response | 214 | |
| 5589431894 | conditioned response (CR) | In classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus | 215 | |
| 5589431895 | conditioned stimulus (CS) | In classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), comes to trigger a conditioned response | 216 | |
| 5589431896 | acquisition | The initial stage in classical conditioning; the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response; in operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response | 217 | |
| 5589431897 | extinction | The diminishing of a conditioned response | 218 | |
| 5589431898 | spontaneous recovery | The reappearnce, after a rest period, of an extinquished conditioned response | 219 | |
| 5589431899 | generalization | The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses | 220 | |
| 5589431900 | discrimination | In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli which do not signal an unconditioned stimulus | 221 | |
| 5589431901 | operant conditioning | A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher | 222 | |
| 5589431902 | respondent behavior | Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus; Skinner's term for behavior learned through classical conditioning | 223 | |
| 5589431903 | operant behavior | Behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences | 224 | |
| 5589431904 | law of effect | Throndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely | 225 | |
| 5589431905 | operant chamber (Skinner box) | A chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer, with attached devices to record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking - used in operant conditioning research | 226 | |
| 5589431906 | shaping | An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of a desired goal | 227 | |
| 5589431907 | reinforcer | In operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows | 228 | |
| 5589431908 | primary reinforcer | An innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need | 229 | |
| 5589431909 | conditioned reinforcer | A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through it association with a primary reinforcer (also known as secondary reinforcer) | 230 | |
| 5589431910 | continuous reinforcement | Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs | 231 | |
| 5589431911 | partial (intermittent) reinforcement | Reinforcing a response only part of the time - results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement | 232 | |
| 5589431912 | fixed-ratio schedule | In operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses | 233 | |
| 5589431913 | variable-ratio schedule | In operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses | 234 | |
| 5589431914 | fixed-interval schedule | In operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed | 235 | |
| 5589431915 | variable-interval schedule | In operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals | 236 | |
| 5589431916 | punishment | An event that decreases the behavior that it follows | 237 | |
| 5589431917 | cognitive map | A mental representation of the layout of one's environment | 238 | |
| 5589431918 | latent learning | Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it | 239 | |
| 5589431919 | overjustification effect | The effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do - the person may now see the reward, rather than intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing the task | 240 | |
| 5589431920 | intrinsic motivation | A desire to perform a behavior for its own sake and to be effective | 241 | |
| 5589431921 | extrinsic motivation | A desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment | 242 | |
| 5589431922 | observational learning | Learning by observing others | 243 | |
| 5589431923 | modeling | The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior | 244 | |
| 5589431924 | mirror neurons | Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so - the brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy | 245 | |
| 5589431925 | prosocial behavior | Positive, constructive, helpful behavior | 246 | |
| 5589431926 | memory | The persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information | 247 | |
| 5589431927 | flashbulb memory | A clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event | 248 | |
| 5589431928 | encoding | The processing of information into the memory system | 249 | |
| 5589431929 | storage | The retention of encoded information over time | 250 | |
| 5589431930 | retrieval | The process of getting information out of memory storage | 251 | |
| 5589431931 | sensory memory | The immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system | 252 | |
| 5589431932 | short-term memory | Activated memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is stored or forgotten | 253 | |
| 5589431933 | long-term memory | The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system | 254 | |
| 5589431934 | automatic processing | Unconscious encoding of incidental information and of well-learned information | 255 | |
| 5589431935 | effortful processing | Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort | 256 | |
| 5589431936 | rehearsal | The conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage | 257 | |
| 5589431937 | spacing effect | The tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice | 258 | |
| 5589431938 | serial position effect | Our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list | 259 | |
| 5589431939 | visual encoding | The encoding of picture images | 260 | |
| 5589431940 | acoustic encoding | The encoding of sound, especially the sound of words | 261 | |
| 5589431941 | semantic encoding | The encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words | 262 | |
| 5589431942 | imagery | Mental pictures - a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding | 263 | |
| 5589431943 | mnemonics | Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices | 264 | |
| 5589431944 | chunking | Organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically | 265 | |
| 5589431945 | iconic memory | A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli | 266 | |
| 5589431946 | echoic memory | A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli | 267 | |
| 5589431947 | long-term potentiation | An increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation - believed to be the neural basis for learning and memory | 268 | |
| 5589431948 | amnesia | The loss of memory | 269 | |
| 5589431949 | implicit memory | Retention independent of conscious recollection | 270 | |
| 5589431950 | explicit memory | Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare" | 271 | |
| 5589431951 | hippocampus | A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage | 272 | |
| 5589431952 | recall | A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier | 273 | |
| 5589431953 | recognition | A measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned | 274 | |
| 5589431954 | relearning | A memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time | 275 | |
| 5589431955 | priming | The activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory | 276 | |
| 5589431956 | déjà vu | That eerie sense that "I've experienced this before" - cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience | 277 | |
| 5589431957 | mood-congruent memory | The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood | 278 | |
| 5589431958 | proactive interference | The disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information | 279 | |
| 5589431959 | retroactive interference | The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information | 280 | |
| 5589431960 | repression | In psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that basishes from conscousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories | 281 | |
| 5589431961 | misinformation effect | Incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event | 282 | |
| 5589431962 | source amnesia | Attributing to the wrong source an event that we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined | 283 |
