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| 15481914899 | Memory | The persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information. | 0 | |
| 15481914900 | Encoding | The processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning. | 1 | |
| 15481914901 | Storage | The process of retaining encoded information over time | 2 | |
| 15481914902 | Retrieval | The process of getting information out of memory storage | 3 | |
| 15481914903 | Parallel processing | The processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving. | 4 | |
| 15481914904 | Sensory memory | The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system. | 5 | |
| 15481914905 | Short-term memory | Activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten. | 6 | |
| 15481914906 | Long-term memory | The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences. | 7 | |
| 15481914907 | Working memory | A newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory. | 8 | |
| 15481914908 | Explicit memory | Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare."(Also called declarative memory.) | 9 | |
| 15481914909 | Effortful processing | Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort. | 10 | |
| 15481914910 | Automatic processing | Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings. | 11 | |
| 15481914911 | Implicit memory | Retention independent of conscious recollection. (Also called nondeclarative memory.) | 12 | |
| 15481914912 | Iconic Memory | A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second | 13 | |
| 15481914913 | Echoic Memory | A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds. | 14 | |
| 15481914914 | Chunking | Organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically. | 15 | |
| 15481914915 | Mnemonics | Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices. | 16 | |
| 15481914916 | Spacing effect | The tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice. | 17 | |
| 15481914917 | Testing effect | Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning. | 18 | |
| 15481914918 | Shallow processing | Encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words. | 19 | |
| 15481914919 | Deep processing | Encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention | 20 | |
| 15481914920 | Hippocampus | A neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage | 21 | |
| 15481914921 | Long-term potentiation (LTP) | An increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory. | 22 | |
| 15481914922 | Recall | A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test. | 23 | |
| 15481914923 | Recognition | A measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test. | 24 | |
| 15481914924 | Relearning | A measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again. | 25 | |
| 15481914925 | Priming | The activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory. | 26 | |
| 15481914926 | Mood-congruent memory | The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood. | 27 | |
| 15481914927 | Serial position effect | Our tendency to recall best the last (a recency effect) and first items (a primacy effect) in a list | 28 | |
| 15481914928 | Repression | In psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories | 29 | |
| 15481914929 | Misinformation effect | Incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event. | 30 | |
| 15481914930 | Source amnesia | Attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. (Also called source misattribution.) | 31 | |
| 15481914931 | Source amnesia | along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories. | 32 | |
| 15481914932 | Déjà vu | That eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience. | 33 | |
| 15481914933 | Heritability | The proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied | 34 | |
| 15481914934 | When do mental differences between adopted children and their adopted parents emerge? | As adopted children get older they become more different from their adopted parents, whereas children who live with their biological families maintain their mental similarities with their family. When children are young, however, mental difference between non-adopted children and their parents vs adopted children with their adopted parents have moderate differences, basically as time goes on the difference in similarity increases as adopted children get older. | 35 | |
| 15481914935 | How can impoverished environments lend themselves to delayed brain development for children in poorer families? | Among those economically impoverished, environmental conditions can depress cognitive development. Schools with many poverty-level children often have less-qualified teachers. So these children may receive a less-enriched education. And even after controlling for poverty, having less-qualified teachers predicted lower achievement scores. Malnutrition also plays a role. Relieve infant malnutrition with nutritional supplements, and poverty's effect on physical and cognitive development lessens | 36 | |
| 15481914936 | Can a well-resourced and caring environment guarantee that a baby will grow up to be smart? | Although malnutrition, sensory deprivation, and social isolation can hinder normal brain development, there is no environmental recipe for fast- forwarding a normal infant into a genius. Later in childhood, however, schooling intervention can pays intelligence score dividends. Schooling and intelligence interact, and both enhance later income | 37 | |
| 15481914937 | Rankings on mental similarity | 1) Identical Twins 2) Fraternal Twins 3) Siblings Raised Together 4) Adopted Children Raised Together | 38 | |
| 15481914938 | Stereotype threat | A self- confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype. | 39 | |
| 15481914939 | How do genders tend to differ mentally according to the textbook? | The differences are minor, but some general differences exist. Girls are better spellers, more verbally fluent, better at locating objects, better at detecting emotions, and more sensitive to touch, taste, and color. The most reliable male edge appears in spatial ability tests. Today, such skills help when fitting suitcases into a car trunk, playing chess, or doing certain types of geometry problems. From an evolutionary perspective, those same skills would have helped our ancestral fathers track prey and make their way home. The survival of our ancestral mothers may have benefited more from a keen memory for the location of edible plants—a legacy that lives today in women's superior memory for objects and their location. Males mental ability scores also vary more than females. Thus, boys worldwide out- number girls at both the low extreme and the high extreme. Evolutionary psychologist Steven Pinker (2005) argues that biological as well as social influences appear to affect gender differences in life priorities. | 40 | |
| 15481914940 | What is an important objection to the idea that genders dictate behavioral differences? | Critics urge us to remember that social expectations and divergent opportunities shape boys' and girls' interests and abilities. Gender-equal cultures, such as Sweden and Iceland, exhibit little of the gender math gap found in gender-unequal cultures, such as Turkey and Korea. | 41 | |
| 15481914941 | Heretibility as it relates to race | Studies have shown that heredity contributes to individual differences in intelligence. But group differences in a heritable trait may be entirely environmental. | 42 | |
| 15481914942 | What does the research suggest about differences in mind between races? | Genetics research reveals that under the skin, the races are remarkably alike. The average genetic difference between two Icelandic villagers or between two Kenyans greatly exceeds the group difference between Icelanders and Kenyans. . Many social scientists, though, see race primarily as a social construction without well-defined physical boundaries, as each race blends seamlessly into the race of its geographical neighbors | 43 | |
| 15481914943 | What is the relationship between race resources and cognition? | When Blacks and Whites have or receive the same pertinent knowledge, they exhibit similar information-processing skill. "The data support the view that cultural differences in the provision of information may account for racial differences in IQ," report researchers Joseph Fagan and Cynthia Holland. Schools and culture matter. Countries whose economies create a large wealth gap between rich and poor tend also to have a large rich/poor IQ gap. | 44 | |
| 15481914944 | Intellegence | Mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations. | 45 | |
| 15481914945 | Intelligence test | A method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores. | 46 | |
| 15481914946 | General intelligence (g) | A general intelligence factor that, according to Spearman and others, underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test. | 47 | |
| 15481914947 | Factor analysis | A statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person's total score. | 48 | |
| 15481914948 | Savant syndrome | A condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing. | 49 | |
| 15481914949 | Grit | In psychology, grit is passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals. | 50 | |
| 15481914950 | Emotional intelligence | The ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions. | 51 | |
| 15481914951 | Spearman's general intelligence theory | A basic intelligence predicts our abilities in varied academic areas. Strength: Different abilities, such as verbal and spatial, do have some tendency to correlate. Other Considerations: Human abilities are too diverse to be encapsulated by a single general intelligence factor. | 52 | |
| 15481914952 | Thurstone's primary mental abilities (g) theory | Our intelligence may be broken down into seven factors: word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial ability, perceptual speed, numerical ability, inductive reasoning, and memory. Strength: A single g score is not as informative as scores for seven primary mental abilities. Other Considerations: Even Thurstone's seven mental abilities show a tendency to cluster, suggesting an underlying g factor. | 53 | |
| 15481914953 | Gardner's multiple intelligences theory | Our abilities are best classified into eight independent intelligences, which include a broad range of skills beyond traditional school smarts. Strength: Intelligence is more than just verbal and mathematical skills. Other abilities are equally important to our human adaptability. Other Considerations: Should all of our abilities be considered intelligences? Shouldn't some be called talents? | 54 | |
| 15481914954 | Sternberg's triarchic theory | Our intelligence is best classified into three areas that predict real- world success: analytical, creative, and practical. Strength: These three facets can be reliably measured. Other Considerations: These three facets may be less independent than Sternberg thought and may actually share an underlying g factor. Additional testing is needed to determine whether these facets can reliably predict success. | 55 | |
| 15481914955 | Mental age | A measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance. Thus, a child who does as well as the average 8-year-old is said to have a mental age of 8. | 56 | |
| 15481914956 | Stanford-Binet | The widely used American revision (by Terman at Stanford University) of Binet's original intelligence test. | 57 | |
| 15481914957 | Intelligence quotient (IQ) | Defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 (thus IQ = ma/ca × 100). On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100, with scores assigned to relative performance above or below average. | 58 | |
| 15481914965 | Predictive validity | The success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior. (Also called criterion-related validity.) | 59 | |
| 15481915014 | Operant Learning | Skinner believed that language development may be explained on the basis of learning principles such as association, imitation, and reinforcement. | 60 | |
| 15481915021 | to the demands of life. (Formerly referred to as mental retardation.) | 61 | ||
| 15481914986 | Prototype | a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin) | 62 | |
| 15481914975 | Hippocampus | -Amnesia -Consolidation during sleep | 63 | |
| 15481914992 | Insight | A sudden realization of a problem's solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions. | 64 | |
| 15481914997 | Availability heuristic | estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common. | 65 | |
| 15481914982 | Fixation | The inability to see a problem from a new perspective. | 66 | |
| 15481914979 | Proactive Interference | When an old memory disrupts the learning and remembering of a new memory. | 67 | |
| 15481915008 | Telegraphic speech | Early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram—"go car"—using mostly nouns and verbs. | 68 | |
| 15481915020 | Surface Structure | The external structure; the actual speech sounds and words in a sentence. | 69 | |
| 15481915015 | Language Development | There is a critical period during the first seven years of life for fully developing certain aspects of language. Children never exposed to any language by about 7 gradually lose their ability to master any language. | 70 | |
| 15481915005 | Grammar | In a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others. In a given language, semantics is the set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds, and syntax is the set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences. | 71 | |
| 15481914977 | Emotions and Memory | -Amygdala -Flashbulb Memory | 72 | |
| 15481914974 | Explicit Memory System | The frontal lobes and hippocampus. | 73 | |
| 15481915017 | Semantics | The set of rules which we derive meaning in a language. | 74 | |
| 15481914995 | Intuition | an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning. | 75 | |
| 15481915001 | Language | Our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning. | 76 | |
| 15481915016 | Critical Period | Learning new languages can get harder with age. | 77 | |
| 15481914981 | Flashbulb Memory | Of all forms of memory a few are exceptionally clear and vivid, and these are called flashbulb memory. These tend to be memories of highly emotional events. Typically people remember where they were, how they felt, and what they were doing when the event happened. | 78 | |
| 15481914978 | Blocking | Forgetting when a memory cannot be retrieved because of interference. | 79 | |
| 15481915007 | Two-word stage | Beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly in two-word statements. | 80 | |
| 15481914964 | Content validity | The extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest. | 81 | |
| 15481914988 | Convergent | Thinking narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution. | 82 | |
| 15481914961 | Normal curve | The symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes. | 83 | |
| 15481915004 | Morpheme | In a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix). | 84 | |
| 15481915018 | The two levels of Chomsky's Transformational Grammar | Deep structure and surface structure. | 85 | |
| 15481914993 | Confirmation bias | a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence | 86 | |
| 15481914996 | Representative Heuristic | Judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information. | 87 | |
| 15481914971 | Factors that affect recall | Transience and Absent-mindedness | 88 | |
| 15481915010 | Broca's area | Controls language expression—an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech. | 89 | |
| 15481914980 | Retroactive Memory | When a new memory blocks the retrieval of an old memory. | 90 | |
| 15481914967 | Fluid intelligence | Our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood. | 91 | |
| 15481915003 | Phoneme | In a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit. | 92 | |
| 15481914989 | Divergent thinking | Expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking that diverges in different directions). | 93 | |
| 15481914960 | Standardization | Defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group. | 94 | |
| 15481914984 | Cognition | All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating. | 95 | |
| 15481915009 | Aphasia | Impairment of language, usually caused by left-hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding) | 96 | |
| 15481914983 | Trial and Error | A type of algorithm which is time consuming but sometimes is the only solution. It involves guessing at random without much thought or reasoning at every possible solution until the correct one is found. | 97 | |
| 15481914998 | Overconfidence | the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments. | 98 | |
| 15481914968 | Intellectual disability | A condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence score of 70 or below and difficulty in adapting | 99 | |
| 15481915011 | Wernicke's area | Controls language reception—a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe. | 100 | |
| 15481915012 | Linguistic determinism | Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think. | 101 | |
| 15481915019 | Deep Structure | An abstract syntactic representation of the sentence being constructed. | 102 | |
| 15481914994 | Mental set | a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past. | 103 | |
| 15481915006 | One-word stage | The stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words. | 104 | |
| 15481915000 | Framing | the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments | 105 | |
| 15481914991 | Heuristic | A simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms | 106 | |
| 15481914976 | Implicit-Memory System | -Cerebellum -Basal Ganglia | 107 | |
| 15481914959 | Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) | The WAIS is the most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests. | 108 | |
| 15481914999 | Belief perseverance | clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited. | 109 | |
| 15481914987 | Creativity | The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas | 110 | |
| 15481914985 | Concept | A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people. | 111 | |
| 15481915002 | Babbling Stage | Beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language. | 112 | |
| 15481914973 | Absent-mindedness | Forgetting caused by lapses in attention. Example: forgetting where you parked, losing your keys. | 113 | |
| 15481914966 | Crystallized intelligence | Our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age. | 114 | |
| 15481915013 | Mental State | A tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, especially if it was worked in the past. | 115 | |
| 15481914969 | Down syndrome | A condition of mild to severe intellectual disability and associated physical disorders caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21. | 116 | |
| 15481914990 | Algorithm | A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier—but also more error- prone—use of heuristics. | 117 | |
| 15481914970 | What are the two ways memories can be cued? | Recall and Recognition. | 118 | |
| 15481914963 | Validity | The extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to. (See also content validity and predictive validity.) | 119 | |
| 15481914962 | Reliablily | the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternatoe forms of the test, or on retesting. | 120 | |
| 15481914972 | Transience | The impermanence of long-term memories- based on the idea that memories gradually fade in strength over time- also known as "decay theory" | 121 |
