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| 6485730149 | Lemon Test | Used to determine the constitutionality of a government action under the Establishment Clause; a precedent and three-prong test articulated in Lemon v. Kurtszman that government action toward religion is permissible if it is secular in purpose, neither promotes nor inhibits the practice or religion, and does not lead to "excessive entanglement with religion" | 0 | |
| 6712095401 | committee clearance | The ability of a congressional committee to review and approve certain agency decisions in advance without the necessity of passing a law | 1 | |
| 6704670010 | Title IX | Major anti-gender discrimination law that applies to universities and schools that accept federal funding; controversial because many universities cut male sports programs so as not to violate the law | 2 | |
| 6702216662 | casework | Assistance given to individual constituents by congressional members, like helping an elderly person figure out how to get Medicare benefits; presents a major advantage to incumbents over challengers | 3 | |
| 6702223648 | McCain-Feingold | Legislation that sought to limit the amounts and types of money spent by and for candidates for elected office; placed limits on soft money; tried to deal with the issue of negative ads by requiring candidates to say that they approve the message; criticized by some as an unconstitutional limit on free speech and expression | 4 | |
| 6702253176 | horse-race journalism | The tendency of the media to cover campaigns by emphasizing how candidates stand in the polls instead of where they stand on the issues | 5 | |
| 6702259707 | selective attention | Paying attention only to those news stories with which one already agrees | 6 | |
| 6702274725 | free riders | People who benefit from an interest group without making any contributions; labor unions and public interest groups often have a free-rider problem because people can benefit from the group's activities without joining | 7 | |
| 6702207113 | fiscal policy | The federal government efforts to keep the economy stable by spending, borrowing, or increasing or decreasing taxes | 8 | |
| 6702211415 | monetary policy | Government policy that attempts to manage the economy by controlling the money supply and thus interest rates. | 9 | |
| 6692760725 | Franking privilege | Benefit allowing members of Congress to mail letters and other materials to constituents postage-free; enables members to familiarize voters with their names and positions; provides an advantage to incumbents over their challengers | 10 | |
| 6692797885 | Entitlements | Programs such as unemployment insurance, disaster relief, or disability payments that provide benefits to all eligible citizens; Social Security and Medicare serve as examples | 11 | |
| 6692691965 | Incorporation (selective incorporation) | Application of portions of the Bill of Rights to the states under the Fourteenth Amendment; Examples include Gideon v. Wainwright and Gitlow v. New York | 12 | |
| 6485730037 | Affirmative Action | A policy designed to correct the effects of past discrimination; requirement by law that positive steps be taken to increase the number of minorities in businesses, schools, colleges, and labor. *Supreme Court Cases:* Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (1978) Gratz v. Bollinger (2003) | 13 | |
| 6702505291 | voting eligibility | Originally left to individual states by the Framers but gradually addressed by the federal government through amendment and basic legislation (Amendments 15, 19, 24, 26; the Voting Rights Act) | 14 | |
| 6485730038 | Agenda Setting | The process of forming the list of matters that policymakers intend to address. | 15 | |
| 6485730039 | Ambassador | A personal representative appointed by the head of a nation to represent that nation in matters of diplomacy. | 16 | |
| 6485730040 | Amicus Curiae Brief | Friend of the court; interested groups may be invited to file legal briefs supporting or rejecting arguments of the case. | 17 | |
| 6485730041 | Anti-Federalists | Opposed the adoption of U.S. Constitution because it gave too much power to the national government at the expense of the state governments and it lacked a bill of rights. *Key Individuals:* Patrick Henry George Mason Richard Henry Lee | 18 | |
| 6485730043 | Appellate Jurisdiction | The authority of a court to review decisions of inferior (lower) courts | 19 | |
| 6485730044 | Appropriations | Money used by Congress or a state legislature for a specific purpose. | 20 | |
| 6485730045 | Apportionment | Distribution of representatives among the states based on the population of each state. | 21 | |
| 6485730046 | Articles of Impeachment | The specific charges brought against a president or a federal judge by a simple majority of the House of Representatives. | 22 | |
| 6485730047 | Articles of Confederation | The first national constitution of the United States that created a government lasting from 1781 to 1789; produced a government that was too weak; replaced by the current Constitution | 23 | |
| 6485730048 | Bills of Attainder | A law that punishes a person accused of a crime without a trial or a fair hearing in court | 24 | |
| 6485730049 | Bipartisan | Politics that emphasizes cooperation between the major parties | 25 | |
| 6485730050 | Blanket Primary | A nominating election in which voters may switch from one political party's primary to another on an office-to-office basis; see *Direct Primary*. | 26 | |
| 6485730051 | Block Grants | Federal grants to the states and local communities that are for general use in a broad area, such as community development; fewer "strings attached" in terms of how the money may be spent | 27 | |
| 6485730052 | Brief | Legal document submitted to the court setting forth the facts of a case and supporting a particular position. | 28 | |
| 6485730053 | Bureaucracy | A system of departments and agencies formed to carry out the work of government; comprised of unelected officials | 29 | |
| 6485730054 | Cabinet | Heads of government departments, selected by the President and approved by a majority of the Senate; appointed to advance and administer public policy and to provide advice and information to the President | 30 | |
| 6485730055 | Categorical Grants | Federal grants to states and local communities that are earmarked for specific purposes only, such as pollution control, schools, or hospitals; recipients are usually required to put up matching funds; also known Grants-in-Aid | 31 | |
| 6485730056 | Caucus | Locally held party meeting in a state to select delegates who, in turn, will nominate candidates to political offices | 32 | |
| 6485730057 | Caucus (Congressional) | An association of congressional members who advocate a political ideology, regional, ethnic, or economic interest. | 33 | |
| 6485730058 | Checks and Balances | System of overlapping the powers of the legislative, executive, and judicial branches, to permit each branch to limit the actions of the others and thus no branch of government may dominate the other | 34 | |
| 6485730059 | Civil Rights Act of 1964 | The legislative act that removed racial barriers in all places vested with a public interest | 35 | |
| 6485730060 | Civil Service System | Established under the *Pendleton Act* of 1883; instituted a merit system through which many federal employees would be selected on the basis of their knowledge and qualifications, rather than who they know; forms the basis for America's modern bureaucracy | 36 | |
| 6485730061 | Clear and Present Danger Test | A doctrine adopted by the Supreme Court of the United States to determine under what circumstances limits can be placed on First Amendment freedoms of speech, press or assembly. *Supreme Court Cases:* Schenck v. United States (1919) Abrams v. United States (1919) Gitlow v. New York (1925) | 37 | |
| 6485730062 | Closed Primary | Form of the direct primary in which only declared party members may vote | 38 | |
| 6485730063 | Cloture | Procedure that may be used to limit or end floor debate in the Senate; requires a three-fifths vote of the Senate | 39 | |
| 6485730064 | Coattail Effect | Influence that a popular candidate for a top office (e.g., President or governor) can have on the voters' support of other candidates of his/her party on the same ballot | 40 | |
| 6485730065 | Commerce Power | Exclusive power of Congress to regulate interstate and foreign trade; has lead to a significant expansion in the role of federal government | 41 | |
| 6485730066 | Concurrent Jurisdiction | Power shared by federal and state courts to hear certain cases. | 42 | |
| 6485730067 | Concurrent Powers | Those powers which are exercised independently by both the national and state governments. Those powers shared by both levels of governments, i.e., state and national. *Examples:* Maintain law & order Levy tax Provide for the general welfare | 43 | |
| 6485730068 | Concurring Opinion | Written explanation of the views of one or more appellate judges who support a decision reached by majority of the court but disagree with the grounds for that decision. | 44 | |
| 6485730069 | Conference Committee | Temporary joint committee created to reconcile any differences between the two houses' versions of a bill. | 45 | |
| 6485730070 | Congressional Budget Office | Advises Congress on the probable consequences of its decisions, forecasts revenues, and is a counterweight to the president's *Office of Management and Budget*. | 46 | |
| 6485730071 | Congressional Districting | The process by which state legislatures draw congressional districts for states with more than one representatives; see *Gerrymandering*. | 47 | |
| 6485730072 | Congressional Oversight | Power exercised by Congress to gather information useful for the formation of legislation, review the operations and budgets of executive departments and independent regulatory agencies, conduct investigations through committee hearings, and bring to the public's attention the need for public policy. | 48 | |
| 6485730073 | Consent of the Governed | A derivative of the doctrine of natural rights; a philosophy, later adopted by Jefferson when he drafted the Declaration of Independence that puts the authority of the government in the people's hands. | 49 | |
| 6485730074 | Conservative | A person who believes government power, particularly in the economy, should be limited in order to maximize individual freedom | 50 | |
| 6485730075 | Constituents | All persons represented by a legislator or other elected officeholder. | 51 | |
| 6485730076 | Constitution | Body of fundamental law, setting out the basic principles, structures, processes, and functions of a government and placing limits upon its actions; may be written or unwritten. | 52 | |
| 6485730077 | Cooperative Federalism | Federal & state governments help each other perform governmental duties; e.g. After hurricanes, federal and state agencies work together to provide relief; can cause confusion and/or conflict among among different levels of government | 53 | |
| 6485730078 | Court Packing | The act of placing members of the same political party on the bench so that opinion of the court will be consistent with that of the political party; associated with *Franklin Roosevelt*. | 54 | |
| 6485730079 | Critical (Realigning) Elections | Marks a significant change in the way that large groups of citizens vote, shifting their political allegiance from one party to the other *Examples:* 1800, 1828, 1860, 1896, 1932, 1964 | 55 | |
| 6485730080 | Dealignment | Marks a period when a significant number of voters choose to no longer support a particular political party as may be witnessed in a Crtitical Election | 56 | |
| 6485730081 | De Facto Segregation | Segregation that exists "in fact," not as a result of laws or governmental actions, i.e., administered by the public; see de jure segregation, segregation. | 57 | |
| 6485730082 | Deficit | Yearly shortfall between revenue and spending. | 58 | |
| 6485730083 | Deficit Spending | Government practice of spending more than is taken in from taxes. | 59 | |
| 6485730084 | De Jure Segregation | Segregation that exists as a result of some law or governmental action. *Examples:* Jim Crow Laws | 60 | |
| 6485730085 | Delegate | Role played by elected representatives who vote the way their constituents would want them to, regardless of their own opinions. | 61 | |
| 6485730086 | Delegated Powers | Powers which are granted to, and exercised ONLY by the national government. The delegated powers are specifically listed in the U.S. Constitution at Articles I, II, III; also known as *Expressed Powers*. | 62 | |
| 6485730088 | Deregulation | A policy promoting cutbacks in the amount of Federal regulation in specific areas of economic activity. | 63 | |
| 6485730089 | Desegregation | The removal of racial barriers either by legislative acts or by judicial action | 64 | |
| 6485730090 | Devolution | An effort to shift responsibility of domestic programs to the states in order to decrease the size and activities of the federal government; associated with Ronald Reagan | 65 | |
| 6485730091 | Discretionary Spending | Spending set by the government through annual appropriations bills, including operating expenses and salaries of government employees. | 66 | |
| 6485730092 | Dissenting Opinion | Written explanation of the views of one or more judges who disagree with a decision reached by a majority of the court. | 67 | |
| 6485730093 | District Courts | Lowest level of federal courts; where federal cases begin and trials are held; exercise original jurisdiction | 68 | |
| 6485730094 | Divided Government | One party controls the executive, and the other party controls one or both houses of Congress. | 69 | |
| 6485730095 | Division of Powers | Basic principle of federalism; the constitutional provisions by which governmental powers are divided between state and national government | 70 | |
| 6485730096 | Double Jeopardy | The constitutional prohibition against a person being put on trial more than once for the same offense. *Constitutional Connection:* Fifth Amendment | 71 | |
| 6485730097 | Dual Federalism | Federal and state governments each have defined respinsibilities within their own sphere of influence; also called *Layer Cake Federalism*. | 72 | |
| 6485730098 | Due Process | The constitutional guarantee (clause) that "no person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process of law." *Constitutional Connections:* Fifth Amendment Fourteenth Amendment | 73 | |
| 6485730099 | Elastic Clause | Found in Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution, it gives Congress the power to make "all laws necessary and proper" to carry out the other defined powers of Congress; also known as the *Necessary and Proper Clause*. | 74 | |
| 6485730100 | Electoral College | Group of persons chosen in each State and the District of Columbia every four years who make a formal selection of the President and Vice President. | 75 | |
| 6485730101 | Elite Theory | A perspective holding that society is ruled by a small number of people who exercise power in their self-interest; see also *Pluralism*. | 76 | |
| 6485730102 | Entitlement Programs | Government benefits that certain qualified individuals are entitled to by law, regardless of need. *Examples:* Social Security Medicare | 77 | |
| 6485730103 | Enumerated Powers | Powers that are granted specifically to the three branches of the federal government under the Constitution; also known as Expressed Powers; powers given to the national government alone | 78 | |
| 6485730104 | Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) | Regulates air and water pollution, pesticides, radiation, solid waste, and toxic substances. It is the main environmental regulatory agency. | 79 | |
| 6485730105 | Equal Protection Clause | Section of the *Fourteenth Amendment* that guarantees that all citizens receive "equal protection of the laws"; has been used to bar discrimination against blacks and women. | 80 | |
| 6485730106 | Establishment Clause | Part of the *First Amendment* prohibiting either the establishment of a religion or the sanctioning of an existing religion by the government; see also *Free Exercise Clause*. *Supreme Court Cases:* Engel v. Vitale (1962) Lemon v. Kurtzman (1971) Lee v. Weisman (1992) | 81 | |
| 6485730107 | Exclusionary Rule | Holds that evidence gained by illegal or unreasonable means cannot be used at the court trial of the person from whom it was seized; see also *Inevitable Discovery*. *Constitutional Connection:* Fourth Amendment *Supreme Court Cases:* Mapp v. Ohio (1961) | 82 | |
| 6485730108 | Executive Agreement | Pact made by the president with the head of a foreign state; a binding international agreement with the force of law but which (unlike a treaty) does not require Senate consent. | 83 | |
| 6485730109 | Executive Office of the President | A collection of agencies that help the president oversee department and agency activities, formulate budgets and monitor spending, craft legislation, and lobby Congress. *Includes:* National Security Council, Council of Economic Advisers Office of Management and Budget Office of National Drug Control Policy | 84 | |
| 6485730110 | Executive Order | A directive, order, or regulation issued by the president; based on constitutional or statutory authority and have the force of law. | 85 | |
| 6485730111 | Executive Privilege | The right of the president to withhold information from Congress or refuse to testify; limited by the Court in certain circumstances, such as a criminal investigation *Supreme Court Cases:* U.S. v. Nixon (1974) | 86 | |
| 6485730112 | Ex Post Facto Law | Criminal law applied retroactively to the disadvantage of the accused; prohibited by the United States Constitution; a law that would allow a person to be punished for an action that was not against the law when it was committed | 87 | |
| 6485730113 | Expressed Powers | Powers that Congress has that are specifically listed in the Constitution; also known as the *Enumerated Powers*. | 88 | |
| 6485730114 | Federal Budget | A detailed financial document containing estimates of federal income and spending during the coming fiscal year. *Key Agencies:* Office of Management and Budget Congressional Budget Office Budget Committees Ways & Means Committee (House) Appropriations Committee (House) | 89 | |
| 6485730115 | Federal Election Campaign Acts (FECA) | A law passed in 1974 for reforming campaign finances; created the Federal Election Commission, provided public financing for presidential primaries and general elections, limited presidential campaign spending, required disclosure, and attempted to limit contributions. | 90 | |
| 6485730116 | Federalism | A form of government in which power is divided between the federal, or national, government and the states. | 91 | |
| 6485730117 | Federalist Papers | A series of articles written by John Jay, Alexander Hamilton, and James Madison urging the adoption of the Constitution. *Key Ideas:* Federalist 10 - Factions (parties), Tyranny of the Majority Federalist 39 - Federalism Federalist 51 - Checks and Balances Federalist 70 - Presidency Federalist 78 - Judicial Review | 92 | |
| 6485730118 | Filibuster | A procedural practice in the Senate whereby a senator refuses to relinquish the floor and thereby delays proceedings and prevents a vote on a controversial issue; see also *Cloture*. | 93 | |
| 6485730119 | Fiscal Federalism | The national government's use of fiscal policy to influence states through the granting or withholding of appropriations. | 94 | |
| 6485730120 | Foreign Policy | The actions and stands that a nation takes in every aspect of its relationships with other countries; everything a nation's government says and does in world affairs. | 95 | |
| 6485730121 | Free Exercise Clause | Part of the *First Amendment* guaranteeing to each person the right to believe whatever that person chooses in matters of religion. *Supreme Court Cases:* Wisconsin v. Yoder (1972) Employment Division v. Smith (1990) | 96 | |
| 6485730122 | Full Faith and Credit Clause | A clause in Article IV of the Constitution which requires that each state respect the laws, records and court decisions of another state. | 97 | |
| 6485730123 | General Election | Regularly scheduled election at which the voters choose public officeholders. | 98 | |
| 6485730124 | Gerrymandering | The process in which state legislatures create congressional districts, many of which are oddly shaped and favor the political party in power in the state making the changes. | 99 | |
| 6485730125 | Grass Roots | Of or from the common people, the average voter; used to describe opinion and pressure on public policy. | 100 | |
| 6485730126 | Gridlock | Describes people's perception that Congress and the president are in a state of disagreement that results in little legislation passing. | 101 | |
| 6485730127 | Hatch Act (1939) | Law that prohibits government employees from engaging in political activities while on duty. | 102 | |
| 6485730129 | Impeachment | An action by the House of Representatives to accuse the president, vice president, or other civil officers of the United States of committing "Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors." | 103 | |
| 6485730130 | Implied Powers | Powers of the national government that flow from its enumerated powers and the *"Elastic Clause"* of the Constitution; powers not specifically mentioned in the Constitution | 104 | |
| 6485730131 | Impoundment | Presidential refusal to allow an agency to spend funds that Congress authorized and appropriated; essentially ended under the *Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974*. | 105 | |
| 6485730133 | Incumbents | Those elected officials who are running for new terms of office. | 106 | |
| 6485730132 | Incorporation Doctrine | The selective application of the protections of the federal Bill of Rights to the states; the legal concept under which the Supreme Court has nationalized the Bill of Rights by making most of its provisions applicable to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment. *Supreme Court Cases:* Gitlow v. New York (1925) | 107 | |
| 6485730134 | Independent Executive Agency | The government not accounted for by cabinet departments, independent regulatory agencies, and government corporations; its administrators are typically appointed by the president and serve at the president's pleasure. *Examples:* NASA | 108 | |
| 6485730135 | Independent Regulatory Agencies | Federal regulatory agencies that are are administratively independent of both the president and Congress. *Examples:* Federal Trade Commission Securities and Exchange Commission | 109 | |
| 6485730136 | Informal Amendment | A change made in Constitution not by actual written amendment. *Methods:* Legislation passed by Congress Actions taken by the President Decisions of the Supreme Court Activities of political parties Custom | 110 | |
| 6485730137 | Inherent Powers | The powers of the national government in foreign affairs that the Supreme Court has declared do not depend on constitutional grants but rather grow out of the very existence of the national government. | 111 | |
| 6485730138 | Injunction | Court order that requires or forbids some specific action. | 112 | |
| 6485730139 | Interest Group | A private organization that tries to persuade public officials to act in ways that benefit its members; an organization of people sharing a common interest or goal that seeks to influence the making of public policy through lobbying, grassroots organizing, etc. | 113 | |
| 6485730140 | Iron Triangle | The three-way alliance among legislators, bureaucrats, and interests groups to make or preserve policies that benefit their respective interests. | 114 | |
| 6485730141 | Joint Committee | Legislative committee composed of members of both houses of Congress. *Examples:* Joint Committee on the Library Joint Committee on Printing | 115 | |
| 6485730142 | Issue Network | A network of policy experts or advocates including members from interest groups, congressional staffs, universities, think tanks, and the media all working to shape public policy | 116 | |
| 6485730143 | Judicial Activism | A philosophy of judicial decision-making whereby judges allow their personal views about public policy guide their decisions; judges look beyond the text of the Constitution and consider current considerations and values (the spirit of the times) | 117 | |
| 6485730144 | Judicial Restraint | A judicial philosophy in which judges play minimal policy-making roles, leaving that duty strictly to the legislatures; judges primarily limit their attention to the actual text of the Constitution | 118 | |
| 6485730145 | Judicial Review | Authority of the courts to review the constitutionality of acts by the executive, the legislature, or the states; established in Marbury v. Madison | 119 | |
| 6485730147 | Judiciary Committee | Key Senate committee that is responsible for recommending presidential judicial appointments to the full Senate for approval. | 120 | |
| 6485730148 | Jurisdiction | Authority vested in a particular court to hear and decide the issues in any particular case. | 121 | |
| 6485730150 | Libel | Publication (written) of statements that wrongfully damage another's reputation; see slander. *Constitutional Connection:* First Amendment *Supreme Court Cases:* New York Times v. Sullivan (1964) | 122 | |
| 6485730151 | Liberal | A person whose views favor more government involvement in business, social welfare, minority rights, & increased government spending | 123 | |
| 6485730152 | Line Item Veto | Presidential power to strike, or remove, specific items from a bill without vetoing it in its entireity; passed by Congress in 1996 and declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in 1998. *Supreme Court Cases:* Clinton v. City of New York | 124 | |
| 6485730153 | Literacy Test | A test administered as a precondition for voting, often used to prevent African Americans from exercising their right to vote; suspended in most states under the *Voting Rights Act of 1965 | 125 | |
| 6485730154 | Lobbyist | A person who is employed by and acts for an organized interest group or corporation to try to influence policy decisions and positions in the executive and legislative branches. | 126 | |
| 6485730155 | Logrolling | The exchange of political favors between legislators for support of a bill; an agreement by two or more lawmakers to support each other's bills | 127 | |
| 6485730156 | Loose Construction | The belief, first expressed by Alexander Hamilton, that the government can do anything that the Constitution does not specifically prohibit; justified through the Elastic Clause | 128 | |
| 6485730157 | Majority Opinion | A court opinion reflecting the views of the majority of the judges; sets forth the decision of the court and an explanation of the rationale behind the court's decision. | 129 | |
| 6485730158 | Motor Voter Act of 1993 | Signed into law by President Clinton, it enables people to register to vote at motor vehicle departments; intended to increase voter turnout | 130 | |
| 6485730159 | National Nominating Conventions | A national gathering of delegates to choose a political party's presidential nominee, write a platform of policy positions, and transact other national party business | 131 | |
| 6485730160 | Natural Rights | Part of Locke's philosophy; rights that are God given such as life, liberty, and property. | 132 | |
| 6485730161 | New Deal | Legislation that provided a safety net for all members of society, such as Social Security, under Franklin Delano Roosevelt during the Great Depression. | 133 | |
| 6485730162 | New Jersey Plan | Offered at the Constitutional Convention at Philadelphia; urged the delegates to create a legislature based on equal representation by the states; advanced the interests of small states; presented less of a departure from the Articles of Confederation | 134 | |
| 6485730163 | Office of Management and Budget (OMB) | Its director, appointed with the consent of the Senate, is responsible for the preparation of the massive federal budget, which must be submitted to the Congress in January each year; oversees congressional appropriations | 135 | |
| 6485730164 | Partisan | Political opposition drawn along party lines | 136 | |
| 6485730165 | Patronage | Dispensing government jobs to persons who belong to the winning political party | 137 | |
| 6485730166 | Party Caucus | Also known as the party conference, it is a means for each party to develop a strategy or position on a particular issue. | 138 | |
| 6485730169 | Party Machine | The party organization that exists on the local level and uses patronage as the means to keep the party members in line. Boss Tweed and Tammany Hall are examples. | 139 | |
| 6485730170 | Party Platforms | Voted on by the delegates attending the National Convention, they represent the ideological point of view of a political party. | 140 | |
| 6485730172 | Pendleton Act | Known as the Civil Service Act of 1883, it set up merit as the criterion for hiring, promoting, and firing federal employees. | 141 | |
| 6485730173 | Political Action Committees | A committee set up by a corporation or interest group to raise and funnels money to political candidates; donation amounts received and contributed and are strictly limited by FEC rules | 142 | |
| 6485730174 | Political Party | A group of people joined together by common philosophies and common approaches with the aim of getting candidates elected in order to develop and implement public policy; characterized by an organization that is responsible to the electorate and has a role in government. | 143 | |
| 6485730175 | Political Socialization | The factors that determine voting behavior such as family, religion, and ethnic background | 144 | |
| 6485730176 | Policy | A course of action decided upon by government, or by any organization, group, or individual, that involves a choice among competing interests | 145 | |
| 6485730177 | Poll Tax | The requirement of a person to pay for the right to vote; restricted by the 24th Amendment | 146 | |
| 6485730178 | Pork Barrel Legislation | The practice of legislators obtaining funds through legislation that favors their home districts. | 147 | |
| 6485730179 | Precedent | Judicial use of prior cases as the test for deciding similar cases | 148 | |
| 6485730180 | President Pro Tempore | Officer of the Senate selected by the majority party to act as chair in the absence of the vice president; customarily awarded to a Senator from the majority party with the most seniority | 149 | |
| 6485730181 | Presidential Primary | Elections held in individual states to determine the preference of the voters and to allocate the number of delegates to the party's national convention. | 150 | |
| 6485730182 | Price Supports | The government's price guarantees for certain farm goods. The government subsidizes farmers to not grow certain crops and also buys food directly and stores it, rather than let the oversupply in the market bring the prices down. | 151 | |
| 6485730183 | Prior Restraint | Censorship enacted before the speech, publication, etc., is released to the general public; unconstitutional in that it conflicts with the First Amendment as confirmed by the Supreme Court in the case of Near v. Minnesota. | 152 | |
| 6485730184 | Probable Cause | A set of facts and circumstances that would induce a reasonably intelligent and prudent person to believe that a particular person had committed a specific crime; reasonable grounds to make or believe an accusation. | 153 | |
| 6485730185 | Prohibited Powers | Expressly bar government from specific actions, e.g. state governments cannot coin money, no ex post facto laws or grant titles of nobility. | 154 | |
| 6485730186 | Ratification | The procedure followed by the states to approve the Constitution and/or its formal amendments. | 155 | |
| 6485730187 | Reapportionment | The process in which a state legislature redraws congressional districts based on population increases or declines. | 156 | |
| 6485730188 | Referendum | The process whereby a legislative proposal is voted upon by popular vote. | 157 | |
| 6485730189 | Reserved Powers | Powers retained by the states, as dictated by the 10th Amendment. | 158 | |
| 6485730190 | Rule of Four | In order for a case to be heard by the Supreme Court, four justices must agree to hear the case. | 159 | |
| 6485730191 | Sedition | Conduct/language inciting rebellion against authority of the state. | 160 | |
| 6485730192 | Select Committees | Specially created congressional committees that conduct special investigations. The Watergate Committee and Iran-Contra investigators were select Senate committees. | 161 | |
| 6485730193 | Senatorial Courtesy | An unwritten tradition whereby the Senate will not confirm nominations for lower court positions that are opposed by a senator of the president's own party from the state in which the nominee is to serve. | 162 | |
| 6485730194 | Separate But Equal | The judicial precedent established in the Plessy v Ferguson decision that enabled states to interpret the equal protection provision of the Fourteenth Amendment as a means of establishing segregation; overturned in the case of Brown v. Board of Education | 163 | |
| 6485730195 | Separation of Church and State | Also known as the "establishment clause," it is part of the First Amendment to the Constitution prohibiting the federal government from creating a state supported religion. | 164 | |
| 6485730196 | Separation of Powers | Originally developed by Montesquieu in The Spirit of Natural Laws written during the Enlightenment and James Madison in Federalist No. 48, this important doctrine resulted in the establishment of three separate branches of government: the legislative, executive, and judicial branches, each having distinct and unique powers. | 165 | |
| 6485730197 | Speaker of the House | The representative from the majority party in the House of Representatives who presides over House meetings, recognizes speakers, refers bills to committees, answers procedural questions, and declares the outcome of votes. | 166 | |
| 6485730198 | Standing Committees | Committees that deal with proposed bills and also act in an oversight function. They are permanent, existing from one Congress to the next, such as the House Ways and Means and Senate Appropriations. | 167 | |
| 6485730200 | Strict Constructionists | Individuals who believe in a conservative interpretation of the Constitution. | 168 | |
| 6485730199 | Stare Decisis | Judicial precedent. . . "let the decision stand"; originated in England in the twelfth century when judges settled disputes based on custom and tradition. | 169 | |
| 6485730201 | Super Delegates | Democratic members of Congress and party officials selected by their colleagues to be delegates at the party's presidential nominating convention; unlike others, these are not committed to a particular candidate and can exercise their judgement when deciding how to vote at the convention; | 170 | |
| 6485730202 | Supremacy Clause | Clause that states that "the Constitution and the laws of the United States... shall be the supreme law of the land." | 171 | |
| 6485730203 | Unitary system | A system of government in which power is concentrated in the central government. | 172 | |
| 6485730204 | Virginia Plan | Offered at the Constitutional Convention at Philadelphia, it urged the delegates to create a legislature based on the population of each state; Madison's plan for a bicameral legislature, with the executive and judiciary chosen by the legislature | 173 | |
| 6485730205 | Voting Rights Act of 1965 | Invalidated the use of any test or device to deny the vote and authorized federal examiners to register voters in states that had disenfranchised blacks; contributed to the establishment of racially gerrymandered congressional districts in the 1980s and 1990s. | 174 | |
| 6692588112 | American Disabilities Act | Congressional mandate that all businesses be physically accessible to persons with disabilities; gave Americans with disabilities protection against discrimination | 175 | |
| 6485730206 | War Powers Act | Limits the ability of the president to commit troops to combat; Congress must be notified within 48 hours of deployment and can ultimately require a withdrawal of troops if so desired | 176 | |
| 6485730207 | Watergate | The illegal entry and phone monitoring of the Democratic headquarters by members of the Republican Party. | 177 | |
| 6485730208 | Whips | Also known as assistant floor leaders, they check with party members and inform the majority leader of the status and feelings of the membership regarding issues to be voted on; responsible for keeping party members in line and having an accurate count of who will be voting for or against a particular bill | 178 | |
| 6485730209 | Writ of Certiorari | Latin for "to be made more certain," the process in which the Supreme Court accepts written briefs on appeal based on the "rule of four" justices voting to hear the case. | 179 | |
| 6485730210 | Writ of Habeas Corpus | Court order requiring jailers to explain to a judge why they are holding a prisoner in custody. | 180 | |
| 6692225450 | Warren Court | Rendered an array of decisions that supported civil rights, civil liberties, voting rights, and personal privacy | 181 | |
| 6692585295 | Attorney General | Head of the Justice Department and the chief law enforcement officer of the United States | 182 | |
| 6702836162 | No one candidate with an electoral vote majority | The House of Representatives chooses a President from among the top three (3) electoral vote recipients; each state has one vote, regardless of how many representatives it has been assigned | 183 |
