AP US History: Chapter 37 - The Eisenhower Era
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| 754886606 | U-2 Incident | -1960: United States one-man U-2 spy plane was reportedly shot down at high altitude over the airspace of the Soviet Union; United States government at first denied the plane's purpose and mission, but then was forced to admit its role as a covert surveillance aircraft when the Soviet government produced its intact remains and surviving pilot, Francis Gary Powers, as well as photos of military bases in Russia taken by the pilot -In March and October 1958, the Soviet Union and the United States, respectively, proclaimed a suspension of nuclear testing; in July 1958, Lebanon called for aid under the Eisenhower Doctrine as communism threatened to engulf the country; in 1959, Soviet dictator Khrushchev appeared before the U.N. General Assembly and called for complete disarmament; in 1960, an American U-2 spy plane was shot down in Russia, causing feelings of a possibly peaceful resolution to subside | |
| 754886607 | Sputnik | -October 4, 1957: the Soviets launched the Sputnik I satellite into space -November: they launched the satellite Sputnik II, carrying a dog -two satellites gave credibility to the Soviet claims that superior industrial production lay through communism -in response, President Eisenhower established the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) | |
| 754886608 | Missile Gap | -term used in the United States for the perceived disparity between the number and power of the weapons in the U.S.S.R. and U.S. ballistic missile arsenals during the Cold War -the gap only existed in exaggerated estimates made by the Gaither Committee in 1957 and in United States Air Force (USAF) figures -even the CIA figures that were much lower and gave the US a clear advantage were far above the actual count -like the bomber gap of only a few years earlier, it is believed that the gap was known to be illusionary from the start, and was being used solely as a political tool, an example of policy by press release | |
| 754886609 | National Defense and Education Act (NDEA) | -in 1958, the _ authorized $887 million in loans to needy college students and in grants for the improvement of teaching sciences and languages -was one of a suite of science initiatives inaugurated by President Eisenhower in 1958, motivated to increase the technological sophistication and power of the US alongside, for instance DARPA and NASA -followed a growing national sense that U.S. scientists were falling behind scientists in the Soviet Union, catalyzed, arguably, by early Soviet success in the Space Race, notably the launch of the first-ever satellite, Sputnik, the year before | |
| 754886610 | South East Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) | -an international organization for collective defense in Southeast Asia created by the Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty, or Manila Pact, signed in September 1954 in Manila, Philippines -the formal institution of _ was established on 19 February 1955 at a meeting of treaty partners in Bangkok, Thailand -the organization's headquarters were also in Bangkok -eight members joined the organization -primarily created to block further communist gains in Southeast Asia, _ is generally considered a failure because internal conflict and dispute hindered general use of the _ military; however, _-funded cultural and educational programs left long-standing effects in Southeast Asia - _ was dissolved on 30 June 1977 after many members lost interest and withdrew | |
| 754886611 | Hungarian Revolt | -In 1956, Hungary rose up against the Soviets attempting to win their independence -when their request for aid from the United States was denied, they were slaughtered by the Soviet forces -America's nuclear weapon was too big of a weapon to use on such a relatively small crisis -in 1956, when the Hungarians revolted against the USSR, the Soviets crushed them with brutality and massive bloodshed -the U.S. did change some of its immigration laws to let 30,000 Hungarians into America as immigrants | |
| 754886612 | Suez Crisis | -also referred to as the Tripartite Aggression, _ War, or Second Arab-Israeli War -President Nasser of Egypt was seeking funds to build a dam on the Nile River -after associating with the communists, secretary of state Dulles pulled back U.S. monetary aid for Egypt -as a result, Nasser nationalized the _ Canal, which was owned by the French and British -in October of 1956, the _ ensued as the French and British launched an assault on Egypt -the two countries were forced to withdraw their troops as America refused to release emergency supplies of oil to them -was a diplomatic and military confrontation in late 1956 between Egypt on one side, and Britain, France and Israel on the other, with the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Nations playing major roles in forcing Britain, France and Israel to withdraw | |
| 754886613 | Eisenhower Doctrine | -in 1957, Congress proclaimed the_, pledging U.S. military and economic aid to Middle Eastern nations threatened by communist aggression -a speech by President Dwight David Eisenhower on 5 January 1957, within a "Special Message to the Congress on the Situation in the Middle East" -under the _, a country could request American economic assistance and/or aid from U.S. military forces if it was being threatened by armed aggression from another state -Eisenhower singled out the Soviet threat in his doctrine by authorizing the commitment of U.S. forces "to secure and protect the territorial integrity and political independence of such nations, requesting such aid against covert armed aggression from any nation controlled by international communism | |
| 754886614 | Landrum-Griffith Act | -in 1959, President Eisenhower passed the _ designed to bring labor leaders to book for financial shenanigans and to prevent bullying tactics -Anti-laborites forced into the bill bans against "secondary boycotts" and certain types of picketing -a United States labor law that regulates labor unions' internal affairs and their officials' relationships with employers -Labor Management Reporting and Disclosure Act of 1959 (LMRDA) | |
| 754886615 | Desegregation | -All aspects of life of African Americans in the South were governed by the Jim Crow laws; Blacks dealt with an array of separate social arrangements that kept them insulated from whites, economically inferior, and politically powerless -Gunnar Myrdal exposed the contradiction between America's professed belief that all men are created equal and its terrible treatment of black citizens in his book An American Dilemma (1944). World War II had generated a new militancy and restlessness among many members of the black community -In 1944, the Supreme Court ruled the "white primary" unconstitutional, undermining the status of the Democratic Party in the South as a white person's club -In the Supreme Court case of Sweatt v. Painter (1950), the Court ruled that separate professional schools for blacks failed to meet the test of equality -In December 1955, Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat to a white person on a bus in Montgomery, Alabama; her arrest sparked a yearlong black boycott of the city busses and served notice throughout the South that blacks would no longer submit meekly to the absurdities and indignities of segregation | |
| 754886616 | Massive Retaliation | -also known as a massive response or massive deterrence -coined by Eisenhower administration Secretary of State John Foster Dulles in a speech on January 12, 1954 -a military doctrine and nuclear strategy in which a state commits itself to retaliate in much greater force in the event of an attack -In the event of an attack from an aggressor, a state would massively retaliate by using a force disproportionate to the size of the attack -the aim of massive retaliation is to deter an adversary from initially attacking -for such a strategy to work, it must be made public knowledge to all possible aggressor; the adversary also must believe that the state announcing the policy has the ability to maintain second-strike capability in the event of an attack; it must also believe that the defending state is willing to go through with the deterrent threat, which would likely involve the use of nuclear weapons on a massive scale | |
| 754886617 | Military-Industrial Complex | -a concept commonly used to refer to policy and monetary relationships between legislators, national armed forces, and the military industrial base that supports them -these relationships include political contributions, political approval for military spending, lobbying to support bureaucracies, and oversight of the industry -a type of iron triangle -the term is most often used in reference to the system behind the military of the United States, where it gained popularity after its use in the farewell address of President Dwight D. Eisenhower on January 17, 1961, though the term is applicable to any country with a similarly developed infrastructure | |
| 754886618 | Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas | -the Supreme Court ruled that segregation in public schools was unequal and thus unconstitutional -the decision reversed the previous ruling in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) -however, while the Border States usually obeyed this new ruling, states in the Deep South did everything they could to delay it and disobey it, diverting funds to private schools, signing a "Declaration of Constitutional Principles" that promised not to desegregate, and physically preventing blacks to integrate -ten years after the ruling, fewer than 2% of eligible black students sat in the same classrooms as whites -real integration of schools in the Deep South occurred around 197 -a landmark United States Supreme Court case in which the Court declared state laws establishing separate public schools for black and white students unconstitutional -ruling paved the way for integration and was a major victory of the civil rights movement | |
| 754886619 | Geneva Conference | -1955: President Eisenhower attempted to make peace with the new Soviet Union dictator, Nikita Khrushchev, following Stalin's death; peace negotiations were rejected -a conference which took place in Geneva, Switzerland, whose purpose was to attempt to find a way to unify Vietnam and discuss the possibility of restoring peace in Indochina -the Soviet Union, the United States, France, the United Kingdom, and the People's Republic of China were participants throughout the whole conference while different countries concerned with the two questions were also represented during the discussion of their respective questions, which included the countries that sent troops through the United Nations to the Korean War and the various countries that ended the First Indochina War between France and the Việt Minh | |
| 754886620 | Fidel Castro | -led a coup that overthrew the America-supported government of Cuba in 1959 -annoyed with Castro's anti-American attitude and Castro seizing valuable American properties in Cuba, the United States cut off the heavy U.S. imports of Cuban sugar -Cuba's left-wing dictatorship quickly had the possibility to become a military satellite for the Soviet Union -in August 1960, Congress authorized $500 million to prevent communism from spreading in Latin America -overthrew U.S.-supported Fulgencio Batista, promptly denounced the Yankee imperialists, and began to take U.S. properties for a land distribution program -when the U.S. cut off heavy U.S. imports of Cuban sugar, Castro confiscated more American property | |
| 754886621 | John F. Kennedy | -the 35th President of the United States, serving from 1961 until his death in 1963 -the Republicans nominated Richard Nixon to run for president and Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr. for vice president in the election of 1960; the Democrats nominated _ to run for president and Lyndon B. Johnson for vice president -his Catholicism aroused misgivings in the Protestant, Bible Belt South -was attacked because he was a Catholic presidential candidate, but defended himself and encouraged Catholics to vote for him; as it turned out, if he lost votes from the South due to his religion, he got them back from the North due to the staunch Catholics there -charged that the Soviets, with their nuclear bombs and the Sputniks, had gained on America in prestige and power; Nixon was forced to defend the dying administration and claim that America's prestige had not slipped -television played a key role in the presidential election as _ personal appeal attracted many -won the election of 1961, gaining support in the large industrial centers where he had strong support from workers, Catholics, and African Americans -events during his presidency included the Bay of Pigs Invasion, the Cuban Missile Crisis, the building of the Berlin Wall, the Space Race, the African-American Civil Rights Movement, and early stages of the Vietnam War; therein, _ increased the number of military advisers, special operation forces, and helicopters in an effort to curb the spread of communism in South East Asia -the _ administration adopted a policy of forced relocation, village internment, and segregation of rural South Vietnamese from the northern and southern communist insurgents; it was carried out by the government of South Vietnam | |
| 754886622 | McCarthyism | -the practice of making accusations of disloyalty, subversion, or treason without proper regard for evidence -also means "the practice of making unfair allegations or using unfair investigative techniques, especially in order to restrict dissent or political criticism" -the term has its origins in the period in the United States known as the Second Red Scare, lasting roughly from 1950 to 1956 and characterized by heightened fears of communist influence on American institutions and espionage by Soviet agents -originally coined to criticize the anti-communist pursuits of Republican U.S. Senator Joseph McCarthy of Wisconsin, "McCarthyism" soon took on a broader meaning, describing the excesses of similar efforts -the term is also now used more generally to describe reckless, unsubstantiated accusations, as well as demagogic attacks on the character or patriotism of political adversaries | |
| 754886623 | Senator Joseph R. McCarthy | -In February 1950, Republican Senator _ made a speech accusing Secretary of State Dean Acheson of knowingly employing 205 Communist party members -even though the accusations later proved to be false, _ gained the support of the public -with the Republican victory in the election of 1952, his rhetoric became bolder as his accusations of communism grew -though _ was not the first red-hunter, he was the most ruthless, doing the most damage to American traditions of fair play and free speech in 1954, _ went too far and attacked the U.S. Army; just a few months later, he was condemned by the Senate for "conduct unbecoming a member" | |
| 754886624 | Gamal Abdel Nasser | -the second President of Egypt from 1956 until his death -President _ of Egypt was seeking funds to build a dam on the Nile River; after associating with the communists, secretary of state Dulles pulled back U.S. monetary aid for Egypt; as a result, _ nationalized the Suez Canal, which was owned by the French and British | |
| 754886625 | Nikita Khrushchev | -led the Soviet Union during part of the Cold War -Ike tried to thaw the Cold War by appealing for peace to new Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev at the 1955 Geneva Conference, but the Soviet leader rejected such proposals, along with one for "open skies" -served as First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964, and as Chairman of the Council of Ministers, or Premier, from 1958 to 1964 -was responsible for the partial de-Stalinization of the Soviet Union, for backing the progress of the early Soviet space program, and for several relatively liberal reforms in areas of domestic policy -_'s party colleagues removed him from power in 1964, replacing him with Leonid Brezhnev as First Secretary and Alexei Kosygin as Premier | |
| 754886626 | Earl Warren | -when Congress and new President Eisenhower ignored the racial issues, Supreme Court Chief Justice _ stepped up to confront important social issues-especially civil rights for African Americans -shocked his conservative backers by actively assailing black injustice and ruling in favor of African-Americans -was an American jurist and politician who served as the 14th Chief Justice of the United States (1953-1969) and the 30th Governor of California -he is known for the sweeping decisions of the Warren Court, which ended school segregation and transformed many areas of American law, especially regarding the rights of the accused, ending public-school-sponsored prayer, and requiring "one-man-one vote" rules of apportionment | |
| 754886627 | Ho Chi Mien | -In Vietnam, revolutionary _ had tried to encourage Woodrow Wilson to help the Vietnamese against the French and gained some support from Wilson, but as _ became increasingly communist, the U.S. began to oppose him\ -was a Vietnamese communist revolutionary leader who was prime minister (1945-1955) and president (1945-1969) of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) -was a key figure in the foundation of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam in 1945, as well as the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) and -led the Việt Minh independence movement from 1941 onward, establishing the communist-ruled Democratic Republic of Vietnam in 1945 and defeating the French Union in 1954 at the battle of Điện Biên Phủ -In the early 1950s, nationalist movements had sought to throw the French out of Indochina -the leaders of the Indochina countries, including Vietnam leader _, became increasingly communist as America became increasingly anticommunist -in May 1954, a French garrison was trapped in the fortress of Dienbienphu in northwestern Vietnam -President Eisenhower decided not to intervene, wary of another war right after Korea -Dienbienphu fell to the nationalists and the conference at Geneva halted Vietnam at the 17th parallel -the pro-Western government in the south, led by Ngo Dinh Diem, was entrenched at Saigon as Vietnam-wide elections, which were promised by _, were never held -President Eisenhower promised economic and military aid to the Diem regime of the south | |
| 754886628 | Rosa Parks | -in December 1955, _ refused to give up her seat to a white person on a bus in Montgomery, Alabama -her arrest sparked a yearlong black boycott of the city busses and served notice throughout the South that blacks would no longer submit meekly to the absurdities and indignities of segregation -was an African-American civil rights activist, whom the U.S. Congress called "the first lady of civil rights" and "the mother of the freedom movement" | |
| 754886629 | Ngo Dinh Diem | -the pro-Western government in the south, led by _, was entrenched at Saigon as Vietnam-wide elections, which were promised by Ho Chi Minh, were never held -was the first president of South Vietnam (1955-1963) -in the wake of the French withdrawal from Indochina as a result of the 1954 Geneva Accords, Diệm led the effort to create the Republic of Vietnam -accruing considerable US support due to his staunch anti-communism, he achieved victory in a fraudulent 1955 plebiscite |
