Targeted must-know terms to master for Period 4 of APUSH.
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| 8002361511 | Industrial Revolution begins | The transition from hand production to machine production in manufacturing. Beginning around 1760, Britain began to undergo a major economic transformation that then spread to the rest of Europe and North America. Inventors, engineers and scientists developed new ways to harness and improve the efficiency of water power, as well as harness steam as a new source of power. With improved power sources, people were then able to innovate in chemical manufacturing and to produce new machine tools to complete work. The Industrial Revolution impacted every aspect of life: income and population grew rapidly. Work, marriage and settlement patterns changed dramatically as people married later and began moving towards cities. The Industrial Revolution is also closely linked with the emergence of the modern capitalist economy. © Apprend, Inc | 0 | |
| 8002361512 | Article 1, Section 8, Clause 8 | Copyright clause of the Constitution. Together Charles Pinckney and James Madison proposed clauses to the Constitution that would protect the rights of artists, authors and artisans to the works they created. The purpose of these proposals, which became one of the enumerated powers granted to Congress, was to encourage the development of inventions and of the arts in the new nation. This supported the more urban, commercial interests which had pushed for a new governing document and laid the groundwork for the development of American manufacturing driven by the innovations of American inventors. © Apprend, Inc | 1 | |
| 8002361513 | Cotton Gin | A machine that separates the seeds of the cotton plant from the fiber. Before the invention of the cotton gin, laborers picked the tufts of cotton from the plant, and then had to separate the seeds from the fibers by hand. This was a very slow and consuming process. Whitney invented a machine that pulled the cotton through mesh, leaving the seeds, which were too big, behind. The cotton gin allowed for the cleaning of up to 55 pounds of cotton a day. This greatly increased cotton's profitability and revolutionized the South. As planters began to plant more cotton, the demand for slaves increased, as the cotton still had to be picked from the plant by hand. And, as cotton became the dominant crop of the South, slavery became a necessary and institutionalized system of labor. The increase in cotton production also led to an increase in the demand for new land, as cotton quickly exhausted the soil. © Apprend, Inc | 2 | |
| 8002361514 | Cumberland Road | The first nationally built road. In 1806, President Thomas Jefferson approved the construction of the "Cumberland Road" which would stretch from Fort Cumberland in Maryland to Wheeling, West Virginia. The paved road which connected the Potomac and the Ohio Rivers took seven years to build. Once it was complete, it became the primary route for accessing the now well-settled Old Northwest Territory, transporting settlers and manufactured goods west and crops and raw materials east. The building of the road illustrated a general political shift and an increase in federal power. Democratic-Republicans once would have argued that the Constitution did not explicitly give Congress the power to build roads. However, at this point, they also recognized the importance of trade to the nation and the important role of the federal government in creating infrastructure to support that trade. The road was expanded in 1820 to connect to St. Louis, Missouri. © Apprend, Inc | 3 | |
| 8002361515 | Steamboat/Robert Fulton/Clermont | Robert Fulton created the first commercial steamboat, named The North River Steamboat of Claremont. In both England and the United States, canals quickly became a primary mode of transporting goods. Water travel was more reliable than foot travel and technological innovations increased the ease of building canals to connect waterways. Fulton, an inventor, became very interested in canals and investigated how steam power could be used to propel ships. After several failed attempts, Fulton finally created a successful steam-powered ship. The North River Steamboat of Claremont, also called the Clermont, ferried both goods and passengers between Albany and New York City, completing the 300 mile journey in only 62 hours. With such dramatically faster speeds than road travel, the steamboat quickly became the preferred method of transporting goods. © Apprend, Inc | 4 | |
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| 8002361517 | Erie Canal | Canal built to connect a navigable waterway from the Great Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean. While goods were easily transported north-south using the country's rivers, the Appalachian Mountains created a significant barrier to east-west transport. The long, difficult journey from the grain fields of the states of the Old Northwest to the east coast was often too expensive to undertake. Several coastal states recognized the opportunity of developing a cheap east-west route which would allow them essentially a monopoly on the grain trade. Although there was much resistance to the expensive and risky canal, New York finally undertook the project. The 363-mile canal from Albany on the Hudson River to Buffalo on Lake Erie was considered an engineering masterpiece. It exceeded any canal previously built in the United States, and led to the development of engineering innovations which were implemented throughout the country. The canal also succeeded in connecting east to west, greatly increasing both the wealth and significance of the western part of the country. © Apprend, Inc | 6 | |
| 8002361518 | Railroads | Steam-powered locomotives accelerated the Industrial Revolution. Various simple railways powered by animals had been used in Britain since the 1500s. With the harnessing of steam power, engineers began to explore how to use that power to move locomotives pulling large loads. The first practical railway locomotive debuted in England in 1811, and it quickly took off for both cargo and passenger travel. In 1830, the first American locomotive, Tom Thumb, traveled 13 miles of the new track between Baltimore and the Ohio River in Virginia. However, it was not until the 1850s that railroads really became accessible and affordable in the United States. Once they did, they transformed the country. It allowed for the faster transport of goods, and made westward migration easier. Most tracks were built east to west, so it also tied the East and the West together while creating a greater divide between North and South as the North's economy was increasingly based on domestic trade and manufacturing, while the South's still relied on exports. © Apprend, Inc | 7 | |
| 8002361519 | Market Economy | An economic system that functions based on what is supplied by its producers and what is demanded by its consumers. The theory behind a market economy is that price of goods are determined both by the available supply and the consumer demand. While a version of a market economy existed before the Industrial Revolution, the Industrial Revolution—as well as the decline of absolute monarchies—shifted the control of production away from the government to individuals and businesses and the control of demand to consumers. The result was a capitalist system in which the means of production are privately owned. Capitalism led to dramatic economic growth, leading economists to argue for laissez-faire economics, the practice of removing all government intervention from the economy. Based on the belief that the market forces of supply and demand would correct any economic problems, in the 1800s laissez-faire economics resulted in the growth of large successful corporations, increased national wealth, and a growing divide between the rich and the poor. © Apprend, Inc | 8 | |
| 8002361520 | Boom & Bust Cycle | A repeated process of economic expansion and contraction. The market economy is driven by the continual balancing of supply and demand. As the market economy expanded in the 1800s, it became clear that it was not possible to always maintain an equilibrium between these two forces. Instead, a cycle developed in which the economy boomed: demand would rise and supply would increase to match it, until suppliers, looking to maximize profit would over-speculate, acquiring or creating too much supply, and demand and prices would drop leading to an economic bust. The first major economic bust, or panic, occurred in 1819 following the major economic expansion that followed the War of 1812. The expansion had been driven in large part by the settlement of the western lands. However, the settlers often purchased their land with loans from banks. The banks, eager to make a profit gave riskier and riskier loans to people who were less likely to pay the loan back. When, in 1819, the Bank of the United States called in its loans to the western banks, those banks tried to call their loans into settlers, who were unable to pay, causing an economic bust. © Apprend, Inc | 9 | |
| 8002361521 | Antebellum Period | The period between the War of 1812 and the Civil War. Although it ended essentially in a stalemate, the War of 1812, solidified the United States as a nation. The period directly after the war was a time of great nationalism and economic and territorial expansion. However, these changes also led to increasing divisions between North and South as the two developed radically different economies: manufacturing and industry in the North and plantations and cash crops driven by the cotton boom in the South. These diverging economies led to opposing social and political values and goals. The South became increasingly dependent on slavery, while the Northern economy benefitted from the influx of inexpensive labor provided by immigrants. The antebellum period is marked both by times of great national unity, as well as serious disagreements over the handling of new lands and the powers and role of the federal government. © Apprend, Inc | 10 | |
| 8002361522 | "Era of Good Feelings" | A time period of national purpose and unity after the War of 1812. Although the United States did not gain any new territory in the War of 1812, Britain's recognition of the country as an equal nation after the war was seen as a victory. The success became a unifier for all Americans across regions. The demise of the Federalist Party after the Hartford Convention, left the Democratic-Republican Party unopposed, diminishing the previous political hostilities. However, the war had also convinced most Democratic-Republicans of the value of a strong national government, and in the post-war era they took on many of the Federalist ideals and projects. As a result James Monroe's presidency, nicknamed the Era of Good Feelings, was marked by a significant expansion of the role of the federal government in spearheading internal improvements and growing the economy. © Apprend, Inc | 11 | |
| 8002361523 | The Second Great Awakening | Religious revival movement in the first half of the 1800s. The Second Great Awakening was the religious manifestation of the Romanticism movement. It emphasized emotion and enthusiasm and rejected the rationalism of the Enlightenment. Beginning in 1790s, preachers began holding revivals much like those of the First Great Awakening, open to all regardless of education or religious background. Responding to the fear spawned by the Industrial Revolution, many of these preachers appealed to the super-natural and emphasized the second coming of Jesus Christ. The Second Great Awakening focused on the importance of free will and one's actions on Earth. The movement was marked by a large number of religious conversions, but also the splintering of established denominations and the creation of new ones like the Methodists and the Baptists. It also led to the development of social reform movements like abolitionism, mental health reform and prison reform and a dramatic increase in colleges as each denomination established its own schools. © Apprend, Inc | 12 | |
| 8002361524 | Slave Codes | Laws restricting the movement and freedom of enslaved people. Beginning in the colonial period, as slave populations grew—and the threat of rebellion along with them—individual colonies passed laws to control their behavior. These laws ranged from colony to colony. However, all prohibited slaves from own property. They also had strict curfews for being off the plantation, prohibited assembly without a white person present, and greatly restricted slaves' rights in court. After Nat Turner's rebellion in Virginia in 1831, Southern states—many of whom who now had slave populations that greatly outnumbered their white populations—passed more restrictions, including prohibitions on owning or using a gun and preaching. Most states also made it illegal for any white person to teach a black person to read. While designed to protect Southern whites and the institution of slavery, these codes served as fuel to the growing abolitionist movement in the North. © Apprend, Inc | 13 | |
| 8002361525 | Free Blacks | African Americans lived outside of slavery in a state of semi-freedom throughout the antebellum period. While free blacks could be found in essentially every state, the majority of them, approximately 1.5 million, were concentrated in the South. While a few of these individuals were born free, more often they were freed slaves. Some were able to buy their freedom, but most were freed by their masters for being a favorite, being an illegitimate child of the master or simply for no longer being useful. While free blacks were not forced to labor, and often even owned their own property, they were also subject to many of the same restrictions of their rights as enslaved blacks. They were not allowed to vote or even testify in court. It was also illegal to teach them how to read and, when some began traveling out of state to seek an education, laws were passed banning them from returning. © Apprend, Inc | 14 | |
| 8002361526 | Alexis de Tocqueville | A political scientist and historian who traveled the United States in the early 1830s. Traveling to the United States for the purpose of studying prisons, Tocqueville spent nine months traveling around the country making observations and taking notes. In 1835, he published his thoughts in a book called Democracy in America. A strong supporter of liberty, Toqueville saw democracy as a balancing act between liberty and equality, the needs of the individual and the needs of the community. He observed the United States, then in the throes of Jacksonian Democracy, as a place where all vestiges of aristocracy seem to have been erased. Hard work and money-making were prized above all and commoners did not view themselves as less than the elites. He recognized that the lack of an established class order meant that the common man had more dignity, but that also the society was more individualistic. Toqueville believed that the lack of an aristocracy, the belief that any person could achieve any status, is what separated the United States from Europe. © Apprend, Inc | 15 | |
| 8002361527 | Frederick Douglass | African-American social reformer, abolitionist and writer. Douglass was born into slavery in Maryland. He taught himself to read and eventually escaped to New York City when he was 20 years old. There, Douglass quickly became involved in the abolitionist movement, joining the lecture circuit and writing several extremely popular autobiographies about his experience in slavery. Many abolitionists held Douglass up as proof the intellectual equality of blacks to whites. Some people even questioned if Douglass had ever truly been a slave. Douglas worked with William Lloyd Garrison on the Liberator, and eventually published his own abolitionist newspaper, The North Star, which supported equality for all, including slaves, free blacks, women, and immigrants. Douglass and Garrison eventually split because Douglass believed in the validity of the Constitution and was willing to engage in discourse with slaveholders. During the Civil War, Douglass was the first African-American invited to the White House. © Apprend, Inc | 16 | |
| 8002361528 | Seneca Falls Convention | The first women's rights convention. In 1848, Lucretia Mott, a famed Quaker, abolitionist and women's rights activist, planned a visit to Seneca Falls, New York. Elizabeth Cady Stanton, a supporter of women's right and an abolitionist, along with the area female Quakers, organized a convention to discuss the condition of women in the United States. The first of its kind, the convention received considerable public attention and spawned the development of conventions throughout the Northeast. At the convention, Stanton presented her Declaration of Sentiments, which echoed the language of the Declaration of Independence in its appeal for the equal treatment of women. The convention became a launching pad for the first American women's movement, and the Declaration its founding document. © Apprend, Inc | 17 | |
| 8002361529 | Cult of Domesticity | The belief that women should remain within the private sphere of the home and bear responsibility for the moral upkeep of the family. As the Industrial Revolution led to more and more men working away from the home, a distinct ideology of separate spheres emerged. Women were supposed to care for their husbands and children, manage the food and run the household while maintaining the four cardinal virtues of piety, purity, submission and domesticity. This kind of "true womanhood" was held in high esteem, and so this was seen by many as a positive social development as it gave women their own path separate from men, allowing them to achieve a kind of equality. However, the cult of domesticity really only applied to a narrow segment of middle and upper class white women, and ignored the reality of many poor women and women of color. Even many of the middle class white women it did apply to, like Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott, found their roles limiting and inherently unequal. © Apprend, Inc | 18 | |
| 8002361530 | Southern Paternalism | The doctrine justifying slavery as a moral responsibility for less fortunate, inferior people. In the South, the Second Great inspired slave owners to argue for the morality of slavery. Slave owners felt they had a moral obligation to care for their slaves, who were less evolved people. Rather than emphasizing forced labor, paternalism argued that slave owners were providing a better life for their slaves than they could provide for themselves, serving as a model for their slaves, and guiding them much like a parent would a child. In most state legislatures, in fact, the term slavery was viewed as improper and was replaced with the phrase "our peculiar institution," meaning a system unique to the South. Rather than altering slave owners' violent treatment of their slaves, however, paternalism became a justification for much of the violence, as slave owners argued that the beatings and other forms of torture were the only way slaves were able to learn the important lessons they were teaching. © Apprend, Inc | 19 | |
| 8002361531 | Federalist Party | The first American political party. While the political divisions among the nation's leaders were apparent during and immediately after the ratification of the Constitution, the Federalists did not come together as an organized political party until the debate over Hamilton's economic plan. Begun by bankers and businessmen, the Federalist Party supported a strong national government focused on growing the nation's trade and industry. The Federalists supported a friendship with Great Britain, the new country's primary trading partner, and wanted to distance the country from revolutionary France. The Federalists, led by George Washington and John Adams, controlled the government until the Democratic-Republican victory of 1800. They still remained a strong political force for the first decade of the new century, until they threatened a New England secession in opposition to the War of 1812 at the Hartford Convention. The signing of the Treaty of Ghent immediately following the convention left the party in disarray, and it never recovered. © Apprend, Inc | 20 | |
| 8002361532 | Democrat-Republicans | Political party formed in opposition to the Federalist Party. As the debate heightened over Hamilton's financial plan, anti-administration members of the government began secretly meeting in Philadelphia led by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison. By 1791, they were a faction in Congress who self-identified as Republicans. The Democratic-Republicans opposed a strong national government, arguing that its powers were restricted to what was specifically listed in the Constitution. Generally, they supported a more agrarian vision for the nation and supported the rights of the states. The Democratic-Republicans won the presidency and control of Congress in the Election of 1800 and maintained control of the federal government until the party fractured in 1825. Over the course of that 25-year span, the fundamental political beliefs of the party shifted until the majority of Democratic-Republicans actually supported views more similar to that of the original Federalists. © Apprend, Inc | 21 | |
| 8002361533 | Thomas Jefferson | Third president of the United States. Although in his inaugural address, Jefferson said, "We are all Republicans, we are all Federalists", once in office he focused on dismantling the Federalist programs he had so vigorously opposed. His primary goal was to shrink the size and scope of the federal government while decreasing the national debt. However, he soon realized that many of the Federalist policies were necessary. Jefferson repealed Hamilton's taxes, but ultimately kept the national bank in place. He shrunk the size of the military, developing a fleet of inexpensive gunboats for defense purposes only. However, he also initiated the new country's first military conflict when he sent a fleet to confront Barbary pirates capturing American ships off the coast of Libya. He also made the single greatest land purchase in American history, the Louisiana Purchase, although it was not in his express power as president. When Jefferson left office, the debt was much smaller, but the U.S. also faced increasing tension with Great Britain and with Native Americans in the newly acquired territory. © Apprend, Inc | 22 | |
| 8002361534 | John Marshall | Fourth chief justice of the Supreme Court. Marshall, the leader of Virginia's Federalist Party and Secretary of State for a year under John Adams, was appointed by Adams as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court in 1801. While he was not the first Chief Justice, he was the longest serving and had the greatest impact on shaping the role of the court. Marshall's ruling of the court was guided by his Federalist principles: in several significant cases, Marshall guided the court in making decisions that asserted the supremacy of federal law over state law and allowed an expansion of the federal government's enumerated powers. He also, however, was a strong adherent of the rule of law. In his majority opinion in Marbury v. Madison (1803), he established the concept of judicial review, the federal courts responsibility to determine if laws are within the bounds of the Constitution. In doing so, he established the judicial branch as an independent and equal branch of the federal government. © Apprend, Inc | 23 | |
| 8002361535 | Marbury v. Madison | The Supreme Court case in which judicial review was established. On March 3, the day before the Jefferson's inauguration, President John Adams made 58 federal judicial appointments, which became known as the "midnight judges." When Jefferson took office he blocked delivery of the commissions, believing that made them invalid. One of the appointees, William Marbury, following the guidelines established in the Judiciary Act of 1789, filed a petition for the writ of mandamus, or a court order, in the Supreme Court to have his commission delivered. In the decision, the court ruled that the commission must be delivered. However, and more importantly, Marshall also ruled that the Supreme Court did not have the power to hear the case. He argued that the guidelines in the Judiciary Act of 1789 for writs of mandamus were in conflict with Article III of the Constitution and therefore were invalid. With this ruling he officially established the federal judiciary's power and responsibility to determine the constitutionality of laws, called judicial review. © Apprend, Inc | 24 | |
| 8002361536 | James Madison | Founding father and fourth president of the United States. A leading Democratic-Republican, Madison served as Jefferson's Secretary of State for the entirety of Jefferson's presidency. Madison oversaw the Louisiana Purchase and tried to maintain U.S. neutrality in the Napoleonic wars, including supporting the Embargo Act. Madison easily won the presidency in 1808. In spite of Madison's efforts at diplomacy, relations with Great Britain continued to deteriorate until war broke out in 1812. The war shifted Madison's political views dramatically, as he recognized the difficulties of fighting a war without a strong army or financial system. As a result, in 1816, Madison signed the bill re-chartering the Bank of the United States (which he had previously vetoed) and asked Congress to increase the size of the military. The U.S. success in the War of 1812, and Madison's role in it, increased American global standing. The end of his presidency was a period of unprecedented prosperity that began the Era of Good Feelings. © Apprend, Inc | 25 | |
| 8002361537 | Hartford Convention | Series of meetings of the Federalist Party to discuss their objections to the War of 1812. By 1812, the Federalist Party was essentially the party of New England. With New England crippled by the Embargo Act and the prime targets of a British blockade and coastal attacks, they strongly opposed the war with Britain. By 1814, the war was going badly for the United States, and New England, led by Federalists, called a convention at Hartford to discuss measures to limit the power of the federal government. The most radical called for secession or expulsion of the western states. More moderate heads prevailed, though, and the convention only called for several constitutional amendments intended to shame and embarrass the administration: limiting the power of the executive, reducing the influence of the South and preventing future extended trade embargoes. However, a few weeks later, the Treaty of Ghent was signed and news of Andrew Jackson's victory in New Orleans was spread wide. The Federalists were labeled as disloyal and never recovered. | 26 | |
| 8002361538 | The American System | A three-point plan to strengthen the economy of the United States. After the War of 1812, the difficulties of the war led to greater consensus among political leaders about the need for a strong national government and a strong financial system. In 1816, Henry Clay began advocating for a three point plan he called the American System which would create a strong American economy: 1) a high tariff that would protect the growth of American manufacturing; 2) a national bank and 3) federal funding for internal improvements like canals and roads. Although the first two parts were instituted almost immediately—the Tariff of 1816 and the rec-chartering of the Second Bank of the United States—opposition to them in the South and West led to increasing sectional tensions which also prevented the third from being fully funded. The plan drew heavily on the ideas of Alexander Hamilton, illustrating the significant change in the political philosophy of the Democratic-Republican Party. © Apprend, Inc | 27 | |
| 8002361539 | Henry Clay | One of the three senatorial giants of the antebellum period. Clay, from Kentucky, served in the federal government for 45 years as a congressman, senator, and Secretary of State. Although he lost all three bids for the presidency, Clay was one of the most influential politicians of the antebellum era. Clay first gained influence when he was elected to Speaker of the House as a strident war hawk, and helped lead the United States into war with Britain. After the war, he became an avid nationalist: putting the good of the country as a whole before the needs of any particular group. He introduced his American System as an economic plan in 1816 and remained a strong advocate for federal funding of internal improvements. As the divisions between North and South intensified, Clay held the Union together, earning the title "The Great Compromiser" for his work in brokering the Missouri Compromise, the Compromise Tariff of 1833 and the Compromise of 1850. © Apprend, Inc | 28 | |
| 8002361540 | Second Bank of the United States | The second national bank authorized by Congress. In 1811, the charter on the First Bank of the United States expired when the Senate failed to renew it. However, the government struggled with funding and unregulated currency during the War of 1812. Officials realized the need for a centralized financial institution. In 1816, Congress approved the creation of the Second Bank of the United States, and President Madison approved it over the objections of Old Republicans, or Quids. The ban was modeled after Hamilton's original bank: a private corporation with the federal government as its largest shareholder. Initially the bank's policies were very liberal, allowing an expansion of credit to fuel rising industry in the East and spreading farms in the West and South. However, the bank dramatically tightened its policies during the Panic of 1819, accelerating unemployment and falling property prices. This created a strong dislike for the bank in the South and West which played a large role in Jackson's election and presidency. © Apprend, Inc | 29 | |
| 8002361541 | Missouri Compromise | A compromise that attempted to maintain a balance between slave and free states. In 1819, Missouri applied for statehood as a slave state, triggering an intense debate in Congress. The House of Representatives, dominated by Northerners, refused to admit Missouri without restrictions on slavery, arguing the 3/5 rule gave disproportionate power to the South. In the Senate, which was evenly split between free and slave states, southern states opposed restrictions on slavery, arguing it would inevitably undercut their voice in the Senate. When Maine also applied for statehood the following year, Henry Clay brokered a compromise. Maine was admitted as a free state, and Missouri as a slave state, maintaining the balance in the Senate. Moving forward, any territory north of the 36 30' parallel would be closed to slavery. While it settled the debate for the moment, the compromise was not a permanent solution. The North's burgeoning population and industrial economy and the nation's continued need for more land continued to deepen the sectional divide. © Apprend, Inc | 30 | |
| 8002361542 | McCulloch v. Maryland | The Supreme Court decision that established the constitutionality of the Bank of the United States. In 1818, the Maryland state legislature placed a tax on all bank notes issued by banks not chartered in Maryland, targeting the Second Bank of the United States. The Maryland courts upheld the law, arguing the bank was unconstitutional because the Constitution was "silent on the subject of banks." When the case was appealed to the Supreme Court, however, they ruled the BUS to be constitutional. In his opinion, Marshall established two powerful precedents. First, Marshall confirmed the existence of implied powers, writing that the necessary and proper clause of the Constitution gave Congress the power to create a bank. Second, he established that states could not impede the exercise of constitutional power by the federal government. Maryland had argued that the state held ultimate authority over the federal government, because they had ratified the Constitution. Marshall refuted this, writing that the people had ratified the Constitution, so they held sovereignty. © Apprend, Inc | 31 | |
| 8002361543 | Panic of 1819 | The first major American financial crisis. During the Napoleonic Wars, Britain had increased its output dramatically and now found itself with a surplus of goods which they sent to the American market at low prices. Continental Europe found itself unable to produce sufficient food, increasing demand for American crops. The result of falling manufacturing prices and soaring agricultural prices led to a speculative land boom in the South and West, fueled by liberal bank lending. By 1817, though, European agricultural production rebounded dramatically, dropping prices and bursting the land bubble. The Bank of the United States tightened its policies and began calling in credit given to western banks, who in turn foreclosed on farmers and businesses. The majority of Americans, particularly in the agricultural South and West, became very critical of the American system and a national economic policy in general. People became increasingly involved in politics to protect their regional interests which laid the groundwork for Andrew Jackson's rise in the 1820s. © Apprend, Inc | 32 | |
| 8002361544 | Jacksonian Democracy | The movement for increased democracy for the common white man in American politics. The movement began in the 1820s as dissatisfaction with the nation's financial policy, land policy, and increasing tension over slavery led to increased political engagement by the average person. Because of the availability of land in the western states, most people were landowners, making property requirements for voting pointless. As a result, most of the western states established universal white male suffrage. Concerned about losing population to the west, the Eastern states followed suit so that by 1828 almost all white men in the country had the right to vote. 2.4 million people voted in 1840, while only 350,000 did in 1824. Jackson appealed to these new voters by campaigning on a promise to end the political dominance of eastern elites, capitalizing on the same anti-intellectual spirit that, in part, launched the Second Great Awakening. His party, the Democratic Party, prioritized loyalty over experience or policy, which also allowed for wider participation. © Apprend, Inc | 33 | |
| 8002361545 | Cherokee Nation v. Georgia | The Supreme Court case in which Native American tribes were defined as dependent nations to the United States. In the 1820s, people in the state of Georgia began agitating for the removal of the Cherokee nation to allow for increased Western settlement. When attempts to negotiate removal with the tribe failed, the state began stripping away Cherokee rights and exerting their control over the tribe to try to force them out, a move supported by newly elected president Andrew Jackson. Chief John Ross appealed to Congress who chose to support the president's position and passed the Indian Removal Act of 1830. Ross challenged the law in court. The Supreme Court refused to issue a ruling in the case, arguing that Native American tribes had no standing to sue as foreign nations. Instead, he characterized the tribes as wards of the federal government. This case not only opened the door for the forcible removal of the Cherokee, it also established a paternalistic approach to American tribal relations. © Apprend, Inc | 34 | |
| 8002361546 | Nullifcation Crisis/Nullification Theory | A federal and sectional crisis in which South Carolina refused to comply with the Tariff of 1832 and threatened secession. In response to the Tariff of 1828, radical state political leaders, supported by Jackson's Vice President and South Carolinian John Calhoun argued for state nullification of the law, citing Jefferson's compact theory outlined in the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions (1798). Jefferson argued that the national government was a compact of the states, giving the states ultimate authority over the national government. When Jackson signed the Tariff of 1832, a state convention in South Carolina adopted the Ordinance of Nullification, declaring both tariffs unconstitutional and unenforceable in South Carolina. The state also began organizing a military defense in case of attempted federal enforcement of the law. © Apprend, Inc | 35 | |
| 8002361547 | Panic of 1837 | The second major financial crisis in the United States. In the 1830s, the US economy was booming. However, like in 1816, this economic expansion was built on credit and speculation. Due to the Indian Removal Act, the federal government's land sales increased dramatically. In 1832, Jackson defunded the National Bank, distributing its funds among "pet banks" in the West. This shifted money away from the manufacturing East and impeded the growth of industry. Meanwhile, these pet banks emboldened by the land boom, often called wildcat banks, gave loans and issued bank notes liberally, inflating the money supply and decreasing the value of the notes. In an attempt to correct the problem, Jackson enacted the Specie Circular of 1836 which required all federal land to be purchased with specie, or hard money. Since the paper bank notes could no longer purchase land, most people considered them worthless and their value plummeted. This rapid devaluing of people's notes resulted in economic depression because people no longer had as much buying power. Also, the Circular caused a crash in the land market, as few buyers had hard money. The crash led to the rescinding of loans and widespread bank failures. Unlike the Panic of 1816, recovery from the Panic of 1837 was slow, lasting until 1843. © Apprend, Inc | 36 | |
| 8002361548 | Know-Nothing Party | A nativist third party in the 1850s. The large influx of Irish and German immigrants in the 1840s led to a resurgence of nativism and anti-Catholicism. In 1843, a local political party dedicated to stopping immigration and limiting immigrant influence formed in New York called the American Republican Party which quickly spread to nearby states under the name the Native American Party. In the 1850s, several secret nativist organizations developed, eventually coalescing under the banner of the Order of the Star Spangled Banner. Members were instructed to say, "I know nothing," when asked about its proceedings. This semi-secret organization then transformed into the American Party, often called the Know-Nothing Party, a third party dedicated to purifying American politics of immigrant influence. The party was most influential between 1854 and 1856, but fell apart as disagreements over the slavery issue superseded concern about immigrants. While it had few prominent leaders, the Know-Nothing Party reflected the anxieties over changes to the American population. © Apprend, Inc | 37 | |
| 8002361549 | Sectionalism | The prioritizing of regional interests over national interests. The differing interests of the East, West and South led to increasing political tensions. The Industrial Revolution accelerated the divergence of the Northern and Southern economies. In the North, manufacturing, fueled by the new wave of immigration, became increasingly important to the economy, while new technology turned the West into the nation's breadbasket, and the South became more dependent on cotton as the booming textile industry increased demand. As infrastructure and trade tied the West and East together, the sectional divide became primarily a North/South one. These differences led to each region advocating conflicting economic and social policies, primarily involving the role of the national government and its relationship to the states. The sectional divide centered around two key issues—tariffs and slavery—which created a series of political crises culminating in the Civil War. © Apprend, Inc | 38 | |
| 8002361550 | State's Rights | In the South, states became increasingly concerned that the federal government was usurping the power of the states. From the founding of the nation, American political leaders grappled with the distribution of power between the states and the federal government. Protecting states' rights was a primary concern of the Anti-Federalists during the debate over ratification, and it was the basis of Jefferson's Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions in 1798, and the Federalists' Hartford Convention in 1814. By the 1820s, due to growing sectionalism, states' rights was a primary concern of the Southern states. In response to the Tariff of 1832, South Carolina argued the right of nullification, arguing that the states had the right to nullify laws detrimental to them. In the 1840s and 1850s, John C. Calhoun built a Senate career on his strong defense of states' rights, and states' rights became the central southern argument in the debate over slavery. © Apprend, Inc | 39 | |
| 8002361551 | Louisiana Purchase | The sale of the Louisiana Territory from France to the United States. The port of New Orleans became a crucial port in the new nation for the movement of agricultural goods from the areas west of the Appalachian Mountains down the Mississippi River and out to the areas to the east. While Pinckney's Treaty granted the United States the right of deposit, the right to store goods for export in the port, Spain was fickle with abiding by this agreement. Looking to gain full control of the port, American representatives offered to purchase New Orleans from Napoleon who had obtained the territory from Spain. Instead Napoleon, wanting to focus on a European empire, directed his foreign minister to offer them the entire territory, over 800,000 square miles, for only $11 million. The purchase was the largest land acquisition in history and created a constitutional controversy. Critics argued that Jefferson did not have the authority to purchase land, however, he argued the sale was covered by his power to make treaties. © Apprend, Inc | 40 | |
| 8002361552 | End of the War of 1812 | The end of the war legitimized the United States as a country and set the foundation for British-American relations going forward. Although the Treaty of Ghent was signed in December of 1814, the war continued until word of the treaty reached North America in January of 1815. Although on its face, the treaty had little to no impact. In reality, it was a tacit acknowledgement by the British government of the United States as an equal nation. Although the treaty did not address American maritime rights, they were never seriously violated again by Great Britain, or any other country until World War I. Also Britain no longer needed to arm and fund western Native American groups, as the United States closed the door on any ambitions for expansion into Canada. This was devastating for the tribes in the Old Northwest and Louisiana Territory. The war also led to the growth of American manufacturing -due to the lack of access to British goods—and bred a new generation of war heroes who would lead the country for the next generation. © Apprend, Inc | 41 | |
| 8002361553 | Adams-Onis Treaty/ Florida Purchase Treaty | A treaty between the United Staes and Spain ceding the Florida territory to the US and defining the border between the United States and New Spain. The United States had repeatedly tried to buy Florida from Spain with no success. However, by 1815 Spain was facing economic problems and increasing unrest in their American empire. Florida was more of a problem than an asset as the Seminole Indians, based out of Florida, continually crossed the border to harass and raid American villages and farms. Spain did not have the funds to either settle or properly police the territory, so Andrew Jackson, in pursuit of Native Americans and escaped slaves in the First Seminole, crossed into Florida, attacking and capturing forts. By 1818, the US effectively controlled all of East Florida. In 1819, Spain agreed to cede Florida to the US in exchange for acknowledgement of Spanish control of the territory west of Louisiana from Texas to California. However, the peace of this border was short-lived as Mexican independence and increasing American settlement in Texas led to new disputes. © Apprend, Inc | 42 | |
| 8002361554 | Monroe Doctrine | A US foreign policy of opposing European colonialism in the Western Hemisphere. In the first two decades of the 19th century, most of the Spanish and Portuguese colonies in North America gained their independence. The United States viewed these independence movements favorably as extending their influence. However, the resurgence of monarchy in Europe after the Congress of Vienna raised concerns of a new European imperialist push which could undermine those gains. Monroe and his Secretary of State John Quincy Adams crafted a statement on the US's stance on European intervention. The policy which became known as the Monroe Doctrine asserted the US would not interfere with any existing European colonies in the Americas, but that they would view any attempt to control an independent American state as an unfriendly act against the US. The United States did not have the power to enforce the policy at first, but by the end of the 19th century it had become the central tenet of American foreign policy. © Apprend, Inc | 43 | |
| 8002361555 | Indian Removal Act | An act passed by Congress authorizing the removal of Southern tribes to land west of the Mississippi River. Westward expansion in the South led to pressure on the US government to remove the tribes living in the western lands claimed by Georgia and Florida. Five tribes—the Choctaws, the Cherokee, the Chickasaw, the Creek and the Seminole—collectively known as the Five Civilized Tribes had opted for assimilation to European culture as a means to ensure their survival. They were considered autonomous nations in the territory, until Jackson, a strong supporter of state autonomy, argued the states had jurisdiction over the tribes within their boundaries. The Removal Act technically made removal voluntary, however the government exerted a great deal of pressure to force Native Americans to sign the questionably legal treaties. For the next seven years, members of the five tribes were forcibly marched on a path that became known as "The Trail of Tears" to territory west of the Mississippi, with thousands dying along the way. The Act also guaranteed the groups eternal rights to their new land, however this was quickly overturned by the American desire for the land and its resources. © Apprend, Inc | 44 |
