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| 298745022 | Etruscans | Culture that ruled Rome prior to republic; ruled through powerful kings and well-organized armies; expelled by Romans circa 510 BCE | 0 | |
| 298745023 | plebians | ordinary citizens; originally Roman families that could not trace relationships to one of the major Roman clans. | 1 | |
| 298745024 | consuls | two chief executives of the Roman republic; elected annually by the assembly dominated by the aristocracy. | 2 | |
| 298745025 | clientage | the social relationship whereby wealthy Roman landholders offered protection and financial aid to lesser citizens in return for political and labor support. | 3 | |
| 298745026 | legions | the basic infantry unit of the Roman military; developed during the republic. | 4 | |
| 298745027 | Carthage | founded by the Phoenicians in Tunisia; became a major empire in the western Mediterranean; fought the Punic wars with Rome for Mediterranean dominance; defeated and destroyed by the Romans. | 5 | |
| 298745028 | Hannibal | Carthaginian general during the second Punic War; invaded Italy but failed to conquer Rome; finally defeated in Africa at battle of Zama | 6 | |
| 298745029 | republic | the balanced political system of Rome from circa 510 to 47 B.C.E.; featured an aristocratic senate, a panel of magistrates, and popular assemblies. | 7 | |
| 298745030 | tribunes | plebian officials elected annually during the Roman republic | 8 | |
| 298745031 | Tiberius and Galus Gracchus | tribunes who attempted to introduce land and citizneship reform under the late roman republic both killed by order of the senate | 9 | |
| 298745032 | Marius | Successful Roman general during the last century BCE; introduced the concept of using paid volunteers in his army rather than citizen conscripts; created military force with personal loyalties to commander | 10 | |
| 298745033 | Sulla | Conservative military commander during last century BCE; attempted to reinforce powers of the Senate and to undo influence of Marius | 11 | |
| 298745034 | Julius Caesar | general responsible for the conquest of Gaul; brought army back to Rome and overthrew republic; assassinated in B.C.E.by conservative senators. | 12 | |
| 298745035 | Octavian | later took the name of Augustus; Julius Caesar's grandnephew and adopted son; defeated conservative senators after Caesar's assassination; became the first Roman emperor. | 13 | |
| 298745036 | Cicero | conservative Roman senator; Stoic philosopher; one of great orators of his day; killed in reaction to assassination of Julius Caesar | 14 | |
| 298745037 | Vergil | a great roman epic poet during the Golden Age of Latin literature; author of the Aeneid. | 15 | |
| 298745038 | Horace | Poet who adapted Greek poetic meters to the Latin language; author of lyrical poetry laudatory of the empire; patronized by Augustus | 16 | |
| 298745039 | Ovid | Roman poet exiled by Augustus for sensual poetry considered out of touch with the imperial policies stressing family virtues | 17 | |
| 298745040 | Livy | historian who linked the roman empire to the traditions of the republican past; stressed the virtues thought to be popular during the early empire. | 18 | |
| 298745041 | natural law | general principles of law applicable to all societies; became a fundamental concept of the Roman Empire's legal system; related to Stoic ethical theory | 19 | |
| 298745042 | Trajan | emperor (101 - 106 B.C.E.); instituted a more aggressive imperial foreign policy resulting in expansion of the empire to its greatest limits. | 20 | |
| 298745043 | Jesus of Nazareth | Jewish teacher and prophet; believed by his followers to be the Messiah; executed by the Romans ca 30 C.E. | 21 | |
| 298745044 | bishops | heads of regional Christian churches | 22 |
