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| 7625639363 | Chapter 2: Early Societies in Southwest Asia and the Indo-European migrations | The earliest urban societies emerged during the early foruth millennium BCE, in southwest Asia, particularly in Mesopotamia. As people came together into larger cities, they sought a way to resolve conflicts, and began to regognize political authorities. They built states thoughout Mesopotamia, which encouraged the production of empires, as some wished to extend their power and enhance security by imposing their rule on neighboring lands. Urban society in Mesopotamia promoted the emergence of social classes, which caused social and economic complexes to rise. Mesopotamians developed a system of writing, and supported the emergence of organized religion. Mesopotamians supported tourism, and they regularly accepted migrants, like the ancient Hebrews. Phoenicians were merchants who also embraced the Mesopotamian society, and built extensive meritime trade networks, which connected southwest Asia with the Mediterranean basin. Some Indo-European people had direct dealings with Mesopotamians, which crutially effected Mesopotamian and Indo-European societies alike. Other Indo-European societies had never heard of Mesopotamia, despite using Mesopotamian inventions, such as the wheel or metallurgy, when undertaking the extensive migrations that influened the early historical development of much of Eurasia, from western Europe to India and beyond. 4000 BCE -- as human population increased, inhabitants needed to find ways to hold the organization of such a large-scale society. By experimentation, they developed states and governmental machinery, and brought political and social order to their society. The word "Mesopotamia" comes from two Greek words meaning "the land between rivers." It refers to the fertile valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, which are located in modern-day Iraq. Mesopotamia received little rainfall, but early cultivators irrigated their fields using the Tigris and Euphrates at about 6000 BCE. Artificial irrigation increased food supplied, which supported the ever-increasing human population, as well as the migrants. Population grew especially fast in Sumer, located in the southern half of Mesopotamia. It is possible that Sumerians already lived in this area in 6000 BCE, but more likely that they were migrants attracted by the agricultural potential of the area. By 5000 BCE, Sumerians were already constructing elaborate irragation networks that helped them procure abundant agricultural harvests. 3000 BCE -- Sumerian population = near 100,000. Sumerians were the dominant people of Mesopotamia. The wealth of Sumeria attracted migrants from other regions, most often Semitic people (called that because they spoke languages of the Semetic family). Semetic people were nomadic herders who went to Mesopotamia from Arabian and Syrian deserts to the south and west. They often inter-married with Sumerian people, and adapted easily to their culture. At around 4000 BCE, huamn population increased in southern Mesopotamia, and the Sumerians built the worlds first cities, markedly different from the preceding neolithic villages, most promiently bycause they were centers of political amd military authority, which power that extended into the outlying areas. They became cultural and economic centers. From 3200 BCE to 2350 BCE, Sumerian cities like Eridu, Ur, Uruk, Lagash, Nippur, Kish and others dominated public affairs. They all experienced internal and externam pressure, causing them to form states. Internally, cities needed to maintain social order and prevent conflicts between its citizens. Additionally, since agriculture was so important to sustaining the urban population, , all cities became city-states, with power over the surrounding agricultural area. Governmental authorities also organized work on projects of value, to the community, such as palaces, temples, and defensive walls. | 0 | |
| 7625639364 | Chapter 4: Early Societies in South Asia | Background Neolithic villages in Indus River valley by 3000 B.C.E. Earliest remains inaccessible because of silt deposits and rising water table Also little known because writing not yet translated Foundations of Harappan society The Indus River Runs through north India, with sources at Hindu Kush and the Himalayas Rich deposits but less predictable than the Nile Wheat and barley were cultivated in Indus valley Cultivated cotton before 5000 B.C.E. Complex society of Dravidians, 3000 B.C.E. No evidence about political system Harappa and Mohenjo-daro: two main cities Each city had a fortified citadel and a large granary Broad streets, marketplaces, temples, public buildings Standardized weights, measures, architectural styles, and brick sizes Harappan society and culture Social distinctions, as seen from living styles Religious beliefs strongly emphasized fertility Harappan society declined from 1900 B.C.E. onward Ecological degradation led to a subsistence crisis Another possibility: natural catastrophes such as floods or earthquakes Population began to abandon their cities by about 1700 B.C.E. Almost entirely collapsed by about 1500 B.C.E. Some Harappan cultural traditions maintained The Indo-European migrations and early Aryan India The Aryans and India The early Aryans Depended heavily on a pastoral economy No writing system, but had orally transmitted works called the Vedas Sacred language (Sanskrit) and daily-use language (Prakit) The Vedic Age: 1500-500 B.C.E. A boisterous period; conflicts with indigenous peoples Called indigenous people dasas--"enemies" or "subject people" Indra, the Aryans' war god and military hero Aryan chiefdoms fought ferociously among themselves Most chiefdoms had leader raja, king Aryan migrations in India: first Punjab and by 500 B.C.E. in northern Deccan Used iron tools and developed agriculture Lost tribal organizations but established regional kingdoms Origins of the caste system Caste and varna The meaning of caste: hereditary, unchangeable social classes The Sanskrit word varna, "color," refers to social classes Social distinctions in the late Vedic Age Four main varnas, recognized after 1000 B.C.E.: brahmins (priests), kshatriyas (warriors and aristocrats), vaishyas (cultivators, artisans, and merchants), shudras (landless peasants and serfs) Later the category of the untouchables was added Subcaste, or jati Represented more elaborate scheme of social classification; developed after the sixth century B.C.E. Jati, or subcastes, were determined by occupations Elaborate rules of jati life: eating, communication, behavior In caste system, social mobility difficult but still possible Usually a result of group, not individual, effort Foreign peoples could find a place in society of the castes Development of patriarchal society Patriarchal and patrilineal society The Lawbook of Manu Prepared by an anonymous sage, first century B.C.E. Dealt with moral behavior and social relationships Advised men to treat women with honor and respect Subjected women to the control and guidance of men Women's duties: to bear children and maintain the household Sati, social custom in which widow throws self on funeral pyre Religion in the Vedic Age Aryan religion Aryan gods War god, Indra Gods of the sun, the sky, the moon, fire, health, disease God Varuna: ethical concern, cosmic order Ritual sacrifices were more important than ethics Priests were specialists of the ritual sacrifices Ritual sacrifices for rewards from the divine power Sacrifices, chants, soma Spirituality underwent a shift after about 800 B.C.E. Thoughtful individuals retreated to forests as hermits Dravidian notions of transmigration and reincarnation were adapted The blending of Aryan and Dravidian values The Upanishads, works of religious teachings (800-400 B.C.E.) The religious forums: dialogues between disciples and sages Brahman: the universal soul Highest goal: to escape reincarnation and join with Brahman Samsara: an individual soul was born many times Karma: specific incarnations that a soul experienced Moksha: permanent liberation from physical incarnation Religion and Vedic society Samsara and karma reinforced caste and social hierarchy Upanishads were also spiritual and intellectual contemplations Taught to observe high ethical standards: discourage greed, envy, vice Respect for all living things, a vegetarian diet | 1 | |
| 7625639365 | Chapter 5: Early Societies in Mainland east Asia | Political organization in early China Early agricultural society and the Xia dynasty The Yellow River Water source at high plateau of Tibet Loess soil carried by the river's water, hence "yellow" "China's Sorrow"--extensive flooding Loess provided rich soil, soft and easy to work Neolithic societies after 5000 B.C.E. Yangshao society, 5000-3000 B.C.E. Excavations at Banpo village: fine pottery, bone tools The Xia dynasty Archeological discovery of the Xia is still in its early stages Established about 2200 B.C.E. Legendary King Yu, the dynasty founder, a hero of flood control Erlitou: possibly the capital city of the Xia The Shang dynasty: 1766-1122 B.C.E. Arose in the southern and eastern areas of the Xia realm Many written records and material remains discovered Bronze metallurgy, monopolized by ruling elite Horses and chariots traveled with Indo-European migrants to China Agricultural surpluses supported large troops A vast network of walled towns The Shang capital moved six times Lavish tombs of Shang kings with thousands of objects Other states besides Shang, for example, Sanxingdui The Zhou dynasty: 1122-256 B.C.E. Zhou gradually eclipsed Shang Mandate of heaven, the right to rule The Zhou needed to justify the overthrow Ruler as "the son of heaven" Mandate of heaven only given to virtuous rulers Political organization: decentralized administration Used princes and relatives to rule regions Consequence: weak central government and rise of regional powers Iron metallurgy spread through China in first millennium B.C.E. The fall of the Zhou Nomadic invasion sacked Zhou capital in 711 B.C.E. Territorial princes became more independent The Warring States (403-221 B.C.E.) The last king of the Zhou abdicated his position in 256 B.C.E. Society and family in ancient China The social order The ruling elites with their lavish consumption of bronze Hereditary aristocrats with extensive landholding Administrative and military offices Manuals of etiquette Free artisans and craftsmen mostly worked for elites Merchants and trade were important Trade networks linked China with west and south Oar-propelled boats traded with Korea and offshore islands Peasants, the majority of population Landless peasants provided labor Lived in small subterranean houses Women's work: wine making, weaving, silkworm raising Wood, bone, stone tools before iron was spread in the sixth century B.C.E. Slaves, mostly war prisoners Family and patriarchy Early dynasties ruled through family and kinship groups Veneration of ancestors Belief in ancestors' presence and their continuing influence Burial of material goods with the dead Offering sacrifices at the graves Family heads presided over rites of honoring ancestors' spirits Patriarchal society evolved out of matrilineal one The rise of large states brought focus on men's contribution After the Shang, females devalued Early Chinese writing and cultural development The secular cultural tradition Absence of organized religion and priestly class Believed in the impersonal heavenly power--tian Oracle bones used by fortune-tellers Inscribed question, subjected to heat, read cracks Discovery of the "dragon bones" in 1890s Early Chinese writing, from pictograph to ideograph More than two thousand characters identified on oracle bones Modern Chinese writing is direct descendant of Shang writing Thought and literature Zhou literature--many kinds of books The Book of Change, a manual of diviners The Book of History, the history of the Zhou The Book of Rites, the rules of etiquette and rituals for aristocrats The Book of Songs, a collection of verses--most notable work Most Zhou writings have perished Ancient China and the larger world Chinese cultivators and nomadic peoples of central Asia Nomadic peoples of the steppe lands--herders Exchange of products between nomads and Chinese farmers Nomads frequently invaded rich agricultural society Nomads did not imitate Chinese ways Nomads relied on grains and manufactured goods of the Chinese The southern expansion of Chinese society The Yangzi valley; dependable river; two crops of rice per year The indigenous peoples of southern China Many were assimilated into Chinese agricultural society Some were pushed to hills and mountains Some migrated to Taiwan, Vietnam, Thailand The state of Chu in the central region of Yanzi Challenged the Zhou for supremacy Adopted Chinese political and social traditions and writing | 2 | |
| 7625639366 | Chapter 8: The unification of China | In search of political and social order Confucius (551-479 B.C.E.) and his school Confucius Educator and political advisor Sayings were compiled in the Analects by his disciples Confucian ideas Fundamentally moral and ethical in character Thoroughly practical: how to restore political and social order Concentrated on formation of junzi--"superior individuals" Edited and compiled the Zhou classics for his disciples to study Key Confucian values Ren--a sense of humanity, kindness, benevolence Li--a sense of propriety, courtesy, respect, deference to elders Xiao--filial piety, familial obligation Cultivate personal morality and junzi for bringing order to China Mencius (372-289 B.C.E.), spokesman for the Confucian school Believed in the goodness of human nature (ren) Advocated government by benevolence and humanity Xunzi (298-238 B.C.E.) had a less positive view of human nature Believed that humans selfishly pursue own interests Preferred harsh social discipline to bring order to society Advocated moral education and good public behavior Daoism featured prominent critics of Confucian activism Preferred philosophical reflection and introspection, a life in harmony with nature Laozi, founder of Daoism, allegedly wrote the Daodejing (Classic of the Way and of Virtue) Zhuangzi (compendium of Daoist philosophy) The Dao--the way of nature, the way of the cosmos Elusive concept: an eternal principle governing all the workings of the world Dao is passive and yielding, does nothing yet accomplishes everything Humans should tailor their behavior to the passive and yielding nature of the Dao Ambition and activism had only brought the world to chaos Doctrine of wuwei: disengagement from worldly affairs, simple life Advocated small, self-sufficient communities Political implications: served as counterbalance to Confucian activism Legalism The doctrine of practical and efficient statecraft No concern with ethics and morality No concern with the principles governing nature Shang Yang (ca. 390-338 B.C.E.), chief minister of Qin and Legalist writer Han Feizi (ca. 280-233 B.C.E.) synthesized Legalist ideas in essays Legalist doctrine The state's strength was in agriculture and military force Discouraged commerce, education, and the arts Harnessing self-interest of the people for the needs of the state Called for harsh penalties even for minor infractions Advocated collective responsibility before the law Not popular among Chinese, but practical; put end to Period of Warring States The Unification of China The Qin dynasty Qin, Located in west China, adopted Legalist policies Encouraged agriculture, resulted in strong economy Organized a powerful army equipped with iron weapons Conquered other states and unified China in 221 B.C.E. The first emperor was Qin Shihuangdi (221 B.C.E.) Established centralized imperial rule Project of connecting and extending the Great Wall Buried 460 scholars alive because of their criticism against the Qin Burned all books except some with utilitarian value Policies of centralization Standardization of laws, currencies, weights, measures Standardization of scripts Tomb of the First Emperor, who died 210 B.C.E. Tomb was underground palace with army of life-size terra-cotta figures Excavation of the tomb since 1974 The collapse of the Qin dynasty Massive public works generated tremendous ill will among the people Waves of rebels overwhelmed the Qin court in 207 B.C.E. Short-lived dynasty, but left deep marks in Chinese history The early Han dynasty Liu Bang; persistent and methodical; by 206 B.C.E. restored order Early Han policies Sought a middle way between Zhou decentralization and Qin overcentralization Han Wudi, the Martial Emperor (reigned 141-87 B.C.E.), emphasized centralization and expansion Han centralization; adopted Legalist policies Built an enormous bureaucracy to rule the empire Continued to build roads and canals Levied taxes on agriculture, trade, and craft industries Imperial monopolies on production of iron and salt Established Confucian educational system for training bureaucrats Han imperial expansion Invaded and colonized northern Vietnam and Korea Han organized vast armies to invade Xiongnu territory (nomads from steppes) Han enjoyed uncontested hegemony in east and central Asia From economic prosperity to social disorder Productivity and prosperity during the Former Han Patriarchal social structure Women's subordination; Ban Zhao's Admonitions for Women Children obey and honor parents Vast majority of population were cultivators Iron metallurgy: farming tools, utensils, and weapons Silk textiles; sericulture spread all over China during the Han Paper production; replaced silk and bamboo as writing material Population growth: twenty million to sixty million from 220 B.C.E. to 9 C.E. Economic and social difficulties Expeditions consumed the empire's surplus Raised taxes and confiscated land of some wealthy individuals Taxes and land confiscations discouraged investment in manufacture and trade Social tensions, caused by stratification between the poor and rich Problems of land distribution The reign of Wang Mang (9-23 C.E.) Land reforms by the "socialist emperor" Overthrown by revolts, 23 C.E. The later Han dynasty (25-220 C.E.) Yellow Turban Uprising: revolt due to problems of land distribution Collapse of the Han Factions at court paralyzed the central government Han empire dissolved; China was divided into regional kingdoms | 3 | |
| 7625639367 | Chapter 9: State, Society, and the quest for salvation in India | The fortunes of empire in classical India The Mauryan dynasty and the temporary unification of India Magadha kingdom filled power vacuum left by withdrawal of Alexander of Macedon Chandragupta Maurya began conquest in 320s B.C.E. Founded Maurya dynasty stretching from Bactria to Ganges Kautala's advice manual, Arthashastra, outlined administrative methods Ashoka Maurya (reigned 268-232 B.C.E.)--peak of empire Conquered the kingdom of Kalinga, 260 B.C.E. Ruled through tightly organized bureaucracy Established capital at Pataliputra Policies were written on rocks or pillars Empire declined after his death because of financial problems The revival of empire under the Guptas Greek-speaking Bactrians ruled in northwest India for two centuries Kushans (nomads from Central Asia) conquered and ruled, 1-300 C.E. High point was Emperor Kashika, 78-103 C.E. Crucial role in Silk Road trading network The Gupta dynasty, founded by Chandra Gupta (375-415 C.E.) Smaller and more decentralized than Maurya Invasion of White Huns weakened the empire After the fifth century C.E., Gupta dynasty continued in name only Large regional kingdoms dominated political life in India Economic development and social distinctions Towns and trade Towns dotted the India countryside after 600 B.C.E. Towns provided manufactured products and luxury goods Active marketplaces, especially along Ganges Trade with Persia, China, Indian Ocean basin, Indonesia, southeast Asia, Mediterranean basin Family life and the caste system Gender relations: patriarchal families, female subordination, child marriage Development of caste system With trade and commerce new social groups of artisans, craftsmen, and merchants appeared These social groups functioned as sub castes, or jati Vaishyas and shudras saw unprecedented wealth Old beliefs and values of early Aryan society became increasingly irrelevant Religions of salvation in classical India Jainism and the challenge to the established cultural order Vardhamana Mahavira (Jina) founded Jain religion in 5th century B.C.E. Jainist doctrine and ethics Inspired by the Upanishads: everything in universe has a soul Striving to purify one's selfish behavior to attain a state of bliss Principle of ahimsa, nonviolence toward all living things Too demanding, not a practical alternative to the cult of the brahmans Appeal of Jainism Social implication: individual souls equally participated in ultimate reality Jains did not recognize social hierarchies of caste and jati Early Buddhism Siddhartha Gautama (563-483 B.C.E.) became the Buddha Gave up his comfortable life to search for cause of suffering Received enlightenment under the bo tree First sermon about 528 B.C.E. at the Deer Park of Sarnath Organized followers into a community of monks Buddhist doctrine: the dharma The Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path are the way to end suffering Suffering is caused by desire Religious goal: personal salvation, or nirvana, a state of perfect spiritual independence Appeal of Buddhism Appealed strongly to members of lower castes because it did not recognize social hierarchies of castes and jati Was less demanding than Jainism, which made it more popular Used vernacular tongues, not Sanskrit Holy sites venerated by pilgrims The monastic organizations--extremely efficient at spreading the Buddhist message and winning converts to the faith Ashoka converted and became important patron of Buddhism Mahayana Buddhism Early Buddhism made heavy demands on individuals Development of Buddhism between 3rd century B.C.E. and 1st century C.E. Buddha became a god The notion of boddhisatva--"an enlightened being" Monasteries began to accept gifts from wealthy individuals These changes became known as Mahayana Buddhism Educational institutions (like Nalanda) promoted new faith The emergence of popular Hinduism The epics Mahabharata, a secular poem revised by brahman scholars to honor the god Vishnu, the preserver of the world Ramayana, a secular story of Rama and Sita, was changed into a Hindu story The Bhagavad Gita A short poetic work: dialogue between Vishnu and warrior Illustrated expectations of Hinduism and promise of salvation Hindu ethics Achieve salvation through meeting caste responsibilities Lead honorable lives in the world Hinduism gradually replaced Buddhism in India | 4 | |
| 7625639368 | Chapter 10: Mediterranean Society: The Greek Phase | Early development of Greek society Minoan and Mycenaean Societies Minoan society arose on the island of Crete, late third millennium B.C.E. Between 2200 and 1450 B.C.E., was the center of Mediterranean commerce Received early influences from Phoenicia and Egypt Untranslated form of writing, Linear A, was used By 1100 B.C.E., Crete fell under foreign domination Mycenaean society: named after important city, Mycenae Indo-European immigrants settled in Greece, 2000 B.C.E. Adapted Minoan Linear A into their script, Linear B Stone fortresses in the Peloponnesus (southern Greece) protected agricultural settlements Overpowered Minoan society and expanded to Anatolia, Sicily, and Italy Chaos in the eastern Mediterranean after Trojan War (1200 B.C.E.) The world of the polis gradually emerged in Greece Sparta began to extend control during eighth and seventh centuries B.C.E. Reduced the neighboring peoples to the status of helots, or semi-free servants Maintained domination by a powerful military machine Spartan society Discouraged social distinction, observed austere lifestyle Distinction was drawn by prowess, discipline, and military talent Athens gradually broadened base of political participation Solon sought to negotiate order by democratic principles Citizenship was open to free adult males, not to foreigners, slaves, and women Athenian society Maritime trade brought about prosperity to Attica, the region of Athens Aristocratic landowners were primary beneficiaries Class tension became intensified in the sixth century B.C.E. Pericles (ca. 443-429 B.C.E.), most popular democratic leader of Athens Greece and the larger world Greek colonization Greeks founded more than four hundred colonies Facilitated trade among Mediterranean lands and people Spread of Greek language and cultural traditions Stimulated development of surrounding areas Conflict with Persia and its results The Persian War (500-479 B.C.E.) Greek cities on Ionian coast revolted against Persia, 500 B.C.E. Battle of Marathon, 490 B.C.E., is decisive victory for Athens Xerxes tried again to seize Athens; his navy lost battle of Salamis (480 B.C.E.) Persian army retreated back to Anatolia (479 B.C.E.) The Delian League Military and financial alliance among Greek poleis against Persian threat When Persian threat subsided, poleis, other than Athens, no longer wanted to make contributions The Peloponnesian War (431-404 B.C.E.) Tensions led to two armed camps, under leadership of Athens and Sparta Unconditional surrender of Athens, 404 B.C.E. The Macedonians and the coming of empire The kingdom of Macedon, a frontier state north of peninsular Greece Philip of Macedon (reigned 359-336 B.C.E.) brought Greece under control Alexander of Macedon succeeds Philip at age twenty and begins conquests By 331 B.C.E., controlled Syria, Egypt, Mesopotamia Invaded Persian homeland and burned Persepolis, 331 B.C.E. Crossed Indus River by 327 B.C.E., army refused to go farther Died in 323 B.C.E. at age of thirty-three Hellenistic Empires: Alexander's realm was divided into Antigonid, Ptolemaic, Seleucid Antigonid empire: Greece and Macedon Continuous tension between the Antigonid rulers and Greek cities Economy of Athens and Corinth flourished again through trade The Ptolemaic empire: Egypt--the wealthiest The rulers did not interfere in Egyptian society Alexandria, capital at mouth of the Nile Cultural center: the famous Alexandria Museum and Alexandria Library The Seleucid empire: largest, from Bactria to Anatolia Greek and Macedonian colonists flocked to Greek cities of the former Persia Colonists created a Mediterranean-style urban society Bactria withdrew from Seleucids and established independent Greek kingdom The fruits of trade: Greek economy and society Trade and the integration of the Mediterranean Basin Trade and commerce flourished resulting in population growth and more colonies Production of olive oil and wine, in exchange for grain and other items Led to broader sense of Greek community Panhellenic festivals (like Olympic Games) became popular Family and society Greek society in Homer's works Heroic warriors and outspoken wives in Homer's world Strong-willed human beings clashed constantly Patriarchal society was the norm Women could not own landed property but could operate small businesses Priestess was the only public position for women Spartan women enjoyed higher status than women of other poleis Sappho: Talented female poet wrote poems of attraction to women Instructed young women in music and literature at home Critics charged her with homosexual activity (not acceptable for women) Slavery: private chattel, property of their owners Worked as cultivators, domestic servants Educated or skilled slaves worked as craftsmen and business managers The cultural life of classical Greece Rational thought and philosophy The formation of Greek cultural traditions: philosophy based on human reason Socrates (470-399 B.C.E.): "An unexamined life is not worth living" Encouraged reflection on questions of ethics and morality Was condemned to death on charge of corrupting Athenian youths Plato (430-347 B.C.E.): A zealous disciple of Socrates The theory of Forms or Ideas--world of ideal qualities This world is imperfect reflection of world of Forms His Republic expressed the ideal of philosophical kings Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.): Plato's student, but distrusted theory of Forms Devised rules of logic to construct powerful arguments Philosophers should rely on senses to provide accurate information Legacy of Greek philosophy Intellectual authorities for European philosophers until seventeenth century Intellectual inspiration for Christian and Islamic theologians Popular religion and Greek drama Greek deities: Zeus and scores of subordinate deities Various types of religious cults; Cult of Dionysus most popular Drama was performed at annual theatrical festivals Great tragedians explored the possibilities and limitations of human action Comic drama took delight in lampooning the public figures Hellenistic philosophy and religion The Hellenistic philosophers: search for personal tranquility Epicureans: identified pleasure as the greatest good Skeptics: doubted certainty of knowledge, sought equanimity Stoics: taught individuals duty to aid others and lead virtuous lives Religions of salvation spread through trade routes Mystery religions promised eternal bliss for believers; like Cult of Osiris Speculation about a single, universal god emerged | 5 | |
| 7625639369 | Chapter 11: Mediterranean Society: The Roman Phase | The Etruscans and Rome Romulus and Remus: legendary twins rescued by a she-wolf; founded Rome in 753 B.C.E. The Etruscans dominated Italy eighth to fifth centuries B.C.E. The kingdom of Rome was on the Tiber River The Roman republic and its constitution Establishment of the republic Rome nobility deposed the last Etruscan king in 509 B.C.E. Republican constitution included two consuls: civil and military Consuls were elected by an assembly dominated by the patricians Senate advised the consuls and ratified major decisions Both Senate and consuls represented the interests of the patricians Conflicts between patricians and plebeians Patricians granted plebeians the tribunes Tribunes' power to intervene and veto decisions Plebeians' tribunes dominated Roman politics, early third century B.C.E. The expansion of the republic Rome consolidated its position in Italy, fifth and fourth centuries B.C.E. Conflict with Carthage (Punic Wars) and Hellenistic realms Rome became preeminent power in eastern and western Mediterranean From republic to empire Imperial expansion and domestic problems The Gracchi brothers supported land redistribution; both were assassinated Military commanders recruited rural and urban poor--intensely loyal armies Gaius Marius: general who advocated land redistribution Conservative aristocratic class supported general Lucius Cornelius Sulla Civil war The foundation of empire Julius Caesar: very popular social reformer and conqueror (Gaul) Seized Rome in 49 B.C.E. Claimed the title "dictator for life," 46 B.C.E. Social reforms and centralized control Assassinated in 44 B.C.E. Octavion brought civil conflict to an end Senate bestowed title "Augustus", 27 B.C.E. Monarchy disguised as a republic Created a new standing army under his control The imperial institutions began to take root Continuing expansion and integration of the empire Roman expansion into Mediterranean basin, western Europe, down Nile to Kush Pax romana, Roman Peace, for two and a half centuries Well-engineered Roman roads; postal system Roman law--tradition: twelve tables (450 B.C.E.) Economy and society in the Roman Mediterranean Trade and urbanization Owners of latifundia focused on specialized production for export Mediterranean trade Sea lanes linked ports of the Mediterranean Roman navy kept the seas largely free of pirates The Mediterranean became a Roman lake The city of Rome Wealth of the city fueled its urban development Statues, pools, fountains, arches, temples, stadiums First use of concrete as construction material Rome attracted numerous immigrants Attractions: baths, pools, gymnasia, circuses, stadiums, amphitheaters Family and society in Roman times The pater familias--eldest male of the family ruled Women wielded considerable influence within their families Many women supervised family business and wealthy estates Wealth and social change Newly rich classes built palatial houses and threw lavish banquets Cultivators and urban masses lived at subsistence level Poor classes became a serious problem in Rome and other cities No urban policy developed, only "bread and circuses" Slavery--one-third of the population Spartacus's uprising in 73 B.C.E. Urban slaves saw better conditions and possibility of manumission The cosmopolitan Mediterranean Greek philosophy and religions of salvation Roman deities: gods, goddesses, and household gods Greek influence--Stoicism Appealed to Roman intellectuals Cicero (106-43 B.C.E.) persuasive orator and writer on Stoicism Religions of salvation gave sense of purpose and promised afterlife Roman roads served as highways for religious spread Mithraism was popular with Roman soldiers--men only Cult of Isis very popular Judaism and early Christianity Monotheistic Jews considered state cults to be blasphemy The Essenes, sect of Judaism; Dead Sea Scrolls Jesus of Nazareth Charismatic Jewish teacher, taught devotion to God and love for human beings Attracted large crowds through his wisdom and miraculous powers The teaching "the kingdom of God is at hand" alarmed the Romans Crucifixion in early 30s C.E. Became "Christ," or "the anointed one" The New Testament and the Old Testament became the holy book of Christianity Paul of Tarsus was principle figure in spread of Christianity Rapid growth of early Christianity Strong appeal to lower classes, urban population, and women Became the most influential faith in the Mediterranean by the third century C.E. | 6 | |
| 7625639370 | Chapter 12: Cross-cultural Exchange on the silk Roads: During the late Classical era | Long-distance trade and the silk roads network Zhang Qian's mission to the west Held by Xiongnu for years Told Han Wudi of possibility of establishing trade relations to Bactria Han Wudi subdued Xiongnu, opening up region to safe trade routes Trade networks of the Hellenistic era Important developments of the classical era that reduced risks Rulers invested in constructing roads and bridges Large empires expanded until borders were closer Trade networks of the Hellenistic world Exchanges between India/Bactria in east and Mediterranean basin in west Ptolemies learned about the monsoon system in Indian Ocean Maritime trade included East Africa--Rhapta The silk roads Trade routes Overland trade routes linked China to Roman empire Sea lanes joined Asia, Africa, and Mediterranean basin into one network Trade goods Silk and spices traveled west Central Asia produced large horses and jade, sold in China Roman empire provided glassware, jewelry, artworks, perfumes, textiles The organization of long-distance trade Merchants of different regions handled long-distance trade in stages On the seas, long-distance trade was dominated by different empires Cultural and biological exchanges along the silk roads The spread of Buddhism and Hinduism Buddhism in central Asia and China First present in oasis towns of central Asia along silk roads Further spread to steppe lands Foreign merchants as Buddhists in China, first century B.C.E. Popularity of monasteries and missionaries, fifth century C.E. Buddhism and Hinduism in Southeast Asia The spread of Christianity Christianity in the Mediterranean basin Missionaries, like Gregory the Wonderworker, attracted converts Christian communities flourished in Mediterranean basin by late third century C.E. Christianity in Southwest Asia follows the trade routes Sizable communities in Mesopotamia and Iran, second century C.E. Sizable number of converts in southwest Asia until the seventh century C.E. Their ascetic practices influenced Christian practices in the Roman empire Nestorians emphasized human nature of Jesus, fifth century C.E. Nestorian communities in central Asia, India, and China by seventh century C.E. The spread of Manichaeism; best example of religion spread on silk roads Mani and Manichaeism Prophet Mani, a Zoroastrian, drew influence from Christianity and Buddhism Dualism: perceived a cosmic struggle between light and darkness, good and evil Offered means to achieve personal salvation Ascetic lifestyle and high ethical standards Differentiation between the "elect" and the "hearers" Spread of Manichaeism; appealed to merchants Attracted converts first in Mesopotamia and east Mediterranean region Appeared in all large cities of Roman empire, third century C.E. Persecuted by Sasanids and Romans but survived in central Asia The spread of epidemic disease Epidemic diseases Common epidemics in Rome and China: smallpox, measles, bubonic plague Roman Empire: population dropped by a quarter from the first to tenth century C.E. China: population dropped by a quarter from the first to seventh century C.E. Effects of epidemic diseases Both Chinese and Roman economies contracted Small regional economies emerged Epidemics weakened Han and Roman empires China after the Han dynasty Internal decay of the Han state Problems of factions and land distribution led to rebellions Generals usurped political authority; the emperor became a puppet By 220 C.E., generals abolished the Han and divided the empire into three kingdoms Nomadic peoples came in; China became even more divided for 350 years Cultural change in post-Han China Gradual sinicization of nomadic peoples Withering of Confucianism in light of political instability Popularity of Buddhism; nomadic rulers embraced it The fall of the Roman empire Internal decay in the Roman empire The barracks emperors: series of generals seizing throne (235-284 C.E. The emperor Diocletian (284-305 C.E.) Divided the empire into two administrative districts A co-emperor ruled each district with the aid of a powerful lieutenant The emperor Constantine and new capital Constantinople Germanic invasions and the fall of the western Roman empire Germanic migrations from northern Europe to eastern and northern part of Roman empire Visigoths--settled agriculturalists; adopted Roman law and Christianity Roman authorities kept Germanic peoples on the borders as a buffer The Huns under Attila attacked Europe mid-fifth century C.E. The collapse of the western Roman empire Under the Huns' pressure, Germanic peoples streamed into the Roman empire Established settlements in Italy, Gaul, Spain, Britain, and north Africa Germanic general Odovacer deposed the Roman emperor, 476 C.E. Imperial authority survived in the eastern half of the empire Cultural change in the late Roman empire Christianity most prominent survivor of the collapse of the empire With Constantine's Edict of Milan, Christianity became a legitimate religion, 313 C.E. Emperor Theodosius proclaimed Christianity the official religion, 380 C.E. St. Augustine harmonized Christianity with Platonic thought The Church became increasingly institutionalized Conflicting doctrines and practices among early Christians Established standardized hierarchy of church officials The bishop of Rome, known as the pope, became spiritual leader As Roman empire collapsed, Christianity served as a cultural foundation | 7 |
