Terms : Hide Images
| 6816660793 | paleolithic age | age of use of crude stone tools and hunting and gathering for subsistence | 0 | |
| 6816660794 | homo sapiens sapiens | the human species that emerfed as most successful at the end of the paleolithic period | 1 | |
| 6816660795 | neolithic age | age of use of adaptation of sedentary architecture; domestication of animals and plants | 2 | |
| 6816660796 | neolithic revolution | succession of technological innovations and changes in human organization that led to the development of agriculture | 3 | |
| 6816660797 | hunting and gathering | means of obtaining subsistence by human species prior to the adaptation of sedentary agriculture | 4 | |
| 6816660798 | bronze age | age when bronze tools were first introduced to the middle east | 5 | |
| 6816660799 | slash and burn agriculture | a system of cultivation when forest floors cleared by fire are planted | 6 | |
| 6816660800 | bands | a group of nomadic hunters consisting of 20 to 30 people | 7 | |
| 6816660801 | Çatal Hüyük | early urban culture based on sedentary agriculture | 8 | |
| 6816660802 | civilization | societies distinguished by sedentary agriculture, production of food surpluses, existence of non-farming elites | 9 | |
| 6816660803 | cuneiform | a form of writing developed by the Sumerians using a wedge-shaped stylus and clay tablets | 10 | |
| 6816660804 | nomads | cattle and sheep herding societies normally found on the fringes of civilized societies | 11 | |
| 6816660805 | Mesopotamia | the civilizations that arose in the alluvial plain of the Tigris-Euphrates river valleys | 12 | |
| 6816660806 | Sumerians | people who migrated into Mesopotamia and organized the first civilization there and and created city-states | 13 | |
| 6816660807 | ziggurats | massive towers usually associated with Mesopotamian temple complexes | 14 | |
| 6816660808 | city-states | a form of Mesopotamian political organizations consisting of agricultural hinterlands ruled by an urban based kings | 15 | |
| 6816660809 | Babylonians | unified all of Mesopotamia; collapsed during foreign invasion | 16 | |
| 6816660810 | Hammurabi | the most important ruler of the Babylonian empire; responsible for codification of law | 17 | |
| 6816660811 | pharoah | title of kings of ancient Egypt | 18 | |
| 6816660812 | pyramids | monumental architecture in Egypt used to bury pharoahs | 19 | |
| 6816660813 | Kush | an African states created on the upper Nile that conquered and ruled Egypt for centuries | 20 | |
| 6816660814 | Indus River Valley | location of Harappan civilization | 21 | |
| 6816660815 | Harappa | along with Mohenjo-daro major urban complex of the Harappan civilization | 22 | |
| 6816660816 | Mohenjo-daro | a major urban complex of Harappan civilization; along with Harappa | 23 | |
| 6816660817 | Huanghe (Yellow) River | site of the development of sedentary agriculture in China | 24 | |
| 6816660818 | ideographic writing | pictographic characters grouped together to create new concepts | 25 | |
| 6816660819 | Shang | first Chinese dynasty | 26 | |
| 6816660820 | Phoenicians | seafaring civilization that established colonies throughout the Mediterranean | 27 | |
| 6816660821 | mandate of heaven | the divine source for political legitimacy of Chinese rulers | 28 | |
| 6816660822 | monotheism | the exclusive worship of a single god | 29 | |
| 6816660823 | Daoism | philosophy that stressed need for alignment with Dao or cosmic force | 30 | |
| 6816660824 | Qin | dynasty established at the end of the Warring States period after the Zhou dynasty | 31 | |
| 6816660825 | Shi Huangdi | founder of the brief Qin dynasty | 32 | |
| 6816660826 | Zhou | vassal family of Shang China that overthrew Shang and established second dynasty of China | 33 | |
| 6816660827 | Confucius | founded philosophy based on need for restoration of order through advice of superior men to be found among the shi | 34 | |
| 6816660828 | Great Wall | Chinese construction meant to keep out nomadic invaders; initiated during the Qin dynasty by Shi Huangdi | 35 | |
| 6816660829 | Han | dynasty that ruled after the Qin for 400 years | 36 | |
| 6816660830 | Silk Roads | trading route established by pastoral nomads that connected Europe, India, and China and transmitted goods and ideas throughout the civilizations | 37 | |
| 6816660831 | Alexander the Great | Successor of Philip II; conquered Persian empire and tried to combine Greek and Persian cultures | 38 | |
| 6816660832 | monsoon | seasonal winds crossing India and southeast Asia; brings rains during summer | 39 | |
| 6816660833 | Aryan | Indo-European nomadic pastoralists who replaced Harappan civilization; militarized society | 40 | |
| 6816660834 | sanskrit | the sacred and classical Indian language | 41 | |
| 6816660835 | vedas | aryan hymns written down in sacred books | 42 | |
| 6816660836 | untouchables | lowest caste in Indian society who performed undesirable tasks | 43 | |
| 6816660837 | Indra | chief deity of the Aryans | 44 | |
| 6816660838 | Chandragupta Maurya | founder of Maurya dynasty; first centralized government since Harappan civilaization | 45 | |
| 6816660839 | Mauryan dynasty | dynasty established in India established after Alexander's invasion | 46 | |
| 6816660840 | Ashoka | grandson of Chandragupta Maurya; converted to Buddhism and sponsored its spread throughout the empire | 47 | |
| 6816660841 | dharma | the caste position and career determined by a person's birth | 48 | |
| 6816660842 | Kushans | dynasty after the Mauryas; sponsors of Buddhism | 49 | |
| 6816660843 | Guptas | dynasty after the Kushans; less centralized than the Mauryan empire | 50 | |
| 6816660844 | Kautilya | political advisor to Chandragupta Maurya; believed in scientific application of warfare | 51 | |
| 6816660845 | gurus | Brahmans who served as teachers for the princes of the imperial court of Guptas | 52 | |
| 6816660846 | Vishnu | the Brahman, later Hindu, god of sacrifice | 53 | |
| 6816660847 | Shiva | the Brahman, later Hindu, god destruction and reproduction | 54 | |
| 6816660848 | reincarnation | the successive attachment of the soul to some animate form according to merits earned in previous lives | 55 | |
| 6816660849 | Buddha | creater of Buddhism; taught that enlightenment could only be achieved by abandoning desires for all earthly things | 56 | |
| 6816660850 | nirvana | the Buddhist state of enlightenment | 57 | |
| 6816660851 | stupas | stone shrines built to house possessions of the Buddha | 58 | |
| 6816660852 | Cyrus the Great | established massive Persian empire | 59 | |
| 6816660853 | zoroastrianism | animist religion that saw material existence as battle between good and evil; stressed moral choice; chief religion of Persian empire | 60 | |
| 6816660854 | olympic games | one of the pan-Hellenistic rituals observed by all of Greece; involved athletic competitions and rituals | 61 | |
| 6816660855 | Pericles | Athenian political leader that guided the development of Athens during the Peloponnesian wars | 62 | |
| 6816660856 | Peloponnesian Wars | wars between Athens and Sparta over dominance of southern Greece; resulted in Spartan victory but did not achieve political unification of Greece | 63 | |
| 6816660857 | Philip II of Macedon | founder of centralized kingdom of Macedon; conquered Greece; father of Alexander | 64 | |
| 6816660858 | Hellenistic Period | culture associated with Greek influence due to Macedonian conquests; combination of Greek culture with eastern political forms | 65 | |
| 6816660859 | Alexandria | Egyptian city founded by Alexander the Great; site of ancient Mediterraneans largest library | 66 | |
| 6816660860 | Roman republic | balanced constitution of Rome; featured a senate, magistrates, and other assemblies | 67 | |
| 6816660861 | Punic Wars | fought between Rome and Carthage over dominance in western Mediterranean; won by Rome after three separate conflicts | 68 | |
| 6816660862 | Carthage | a major port and commercial power in western Mediterranean; fought in Punic Wars against Rome | 69 | |
| 6816660863 | Hannibal | Great Carthiginian general during Second Punic War; failed to conquer Rome | 70 | |
| 6816660864 | Julius Caesar | Roman general responsible for conquest of Gaul; came back to Rome and overthrew republic; assassinated by conservative senators | 71 | |
| 6816660865 | Augustus Caesar | first emperor of Rome; defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra | 72 | |
| 6816660866 | Diocletian | Roman emperor who restored later empire by improved administration and tax collection | 73 | |
| 6816660867 | Constantine | Roman emperor who established 2nd capital at Constantinople; tried to use Christianity to unify empire | 74 | |
| 6816660868 | polis | city-state form of government; typical of Greek political organization | 75 | |
| 6816660869 | direct democracy | rule of the people; all decisions came from popular assembly without intervention of elected officials | 76 | |
| 6816660870 | senate | assembly of Roman aristocrats; advised on policy within the republic | 77 | |
| 6816660871 | consuls | two chief executives/magistrates of the Roman republic; elected by annual assembly dominated by aristocracy | 78 | |
| 6816660872 | Cicero | conservative Roman senator; Stoic philosopher; a great orator | 79 | |
| 6816660873 | Aristotle | Greek philosopher; teacher of Alexander; knowledge based on observation of phenomena in material world | 80 | |
| 6816660874 | Stoics | Hellenistic group of philosopher; emphasized inner moral independence by strict discipline of the body and personal bravery | 81 | |
| 6816660875 | Socrates | Athenian philosopher; tutor of Plato; urged rational reflection of moral decisions | 82 | |
| 6816660876 | Plato | Greek philosopher; considered ideal forms outside material world; proposed form of government based on abstract principles | 83 | |
| 6816660877 | Sophocles | Greek writer of tragedies; (Oedipus series) | 84 | |
| 6816660878 | Doric | least ornate of the three Hellenistic architectural styles | 85 | |
| 6816660879 | Ionic | moderate style of Hellenistic architecture | 86 | |
| 6816660880 | Corinthian | the most ornate style of Hellenistic architecture | 87 | |
| 6816660881 | Axum | kingdom in the Ethiopian highlands; received strong influence from Arabian peninsula; first empire to convert to Christianity | 88 | |
| 6816660882 | Ethiopia | Christian kingdom; retained Christianity in the face of Muslim expansion in Africa | 89 | |
| 6816660883 | Sahara | desert running across northern Africa that separates the Mediterranean coast from southern Africa | 90 | |
| 6816660884 | Shintoism | religion of early Japanese culture; worship of numerous gods and spirits associated with the natural world | 91 | |
| 6816660885 | Yellow Turbans | Chinese Daoists who launched a revolt in China promising a Golden Age to be brought by divine magic | 92 | |
| 6816660886 | Sui | dynasty after the Han; united northern China and conquered southern China | 93 | |
| 6816660887 | Tang | dynasty after and more stable than the Sui | 94 | |
| 6816660888 | Rajput | regional princes in India following collapse of empire; emphasized military control of their regions | 95 | |
| 6816660889 | Devi | mother goddess in Hinduism; encouraged emotionalism in religious ritual | 96 | |
| 6816660890 | islam | major world religion from the Arabian peninsula | 97 | |
| 6816660891 | Allah | supreme God in strictly monotheistic Islam | 98 | |
| 6816660892 | Byzantine empire | eastern half of Roman empire after the collapse of the old western empire; capital at Constantinople | 99 | |
| 6816660893 | Justinian | eastern Roman emperor who tried to restore unity of old Roman empire; responsible for the Hagia Sofia | 100 | |
| 6816660894 | Augustine | influential church father and theologian born in Africa | 101 | |
| 6816660895 | Copts | Christian sects of Egypt | 102 | |
| 6816660896 | Jesus | prophet and teacher among the Jews; believed by Christians to be the Messiah | 103 | |
| 6816660897 | Paul | one of the first Christian missionaries; ignored insistence that the new religion should follow Jewish law | 104 | |
| 6816660898 | pope | bishop of Rome; head of the Christian church in western Europe | 105 | |
| 6816660899 | Benedict | founder of monasticism in what had been the western half of the Roman empire | 106 | |
| 6816660900 | animism | a religious outlook that sees gods in many aspects of nature and uses them to help explain nature | 107 | |
| 6816660901 | Muslims | followers of islam | 108 | |
| 6816660902 | Muhammad | the prophet of Islam | 109 | |
| 6816660903 | Qu'ran | the holy book of Islam | 110 | |
| 6816660904 | bedouin | nomadic pastoralists of the Arabian peninsula | 111 | |
| 6816660905 | shaykhs | tribal leaders of the bedouin | 112 | |
| 6816660906 | Mecca | the holy city of Islam | 113 | |
| 6816660907 | Umayyad | clan of quraysh that dominated politics and economy of Mecca; later established a dynasty as the rulers of Islam | 114 | |
| 6816660908 | Quraysh | tribe of bedouins that controlled Mecca | 115 | |
| 6816660909 | Medina | became refuge for Muhammad after flight from Mecca (hijra) | 116 | |
| 6816660910 | Khadijah | the first wife of Muhammad | 117 | |
| 6816660911 | Ali | the son-in-law/cousin of Muhammad; orthodox caliphs; focus for Shi'a | 118 | |
| 6816660912 | umma | community of the faithful within Islam | 119 | |
| 6816660913 | zakat | tax for charity; obligatory for all Muslims | 120 | |
| 6816660914 | five pillars | obligatory religious duties for all Muslims | 121 | |
| 6816660915 | Ramadan | Islamic holy month; fasting is observed | 122 | |
| 6816660916 | hajj | the pilgrimage to Mecca obligatory for all Muslims | 123 | |
| 6816660917 | caliph | successors to Muhammad | 124 | |
| 6816660918 | abu bakr | one of Muhammad's earliest converts; first caliph of Islamic community | 125 | |
| 6816660919 | Ridda Wars | wars after Muhammad's death; defeat of rival prophets and some of larger clans; restored unity of Islam | 126 | |
| 6816660920 | jihad | Islamic holy war | 127 | |
| 6816660921 | Nestorians | Christian sects found in southeast Asia | 128 | |
| 6816660922 | uthman | third caliph and member of Umayyad clan | 129 | |
| 6816660923 | Battle of Siffin | fought between Ali and the Umayyads | 130 | |
| 6816660924 | mu'awiya | leader of Umayyad clan | 131 | |
| 6816660925 | sunnis | followers of the Umayyads | 132 | |
| 6816660926 | shi'a | followers of Ali | 133 | |
| 6816660927 | karbala | site of defeat and death of Ali's son Hulayu | 134 | |
| 6816660928 | Damascus | Syrian city that was the Umayyad capital | 135 | |
| 6816660929 | mawali | non-Arab converts to Islam | 136 | |
| 6816660930 | jizya | head tax paid by all non-believers in Islamic territories | 137 | |
| 6816660931 | dhimmi | Jews and Christians in Islamic territories | 138 | |
| 6816660932 | hadiths | traditions of the prophet Muhammad | 139 | |
| 6816660933 | Abbasids | dynasty that succeeded the Umayyads | 140 | |
| 6816660934 | Battle on the River Zab | Abbasid victory against the Umayyads when the Abbasids captured Syria | 141 | |
| 6816660935 | Baghdad | capital of the Abbasid empire | 142 | |
| 6816660936 | wazir | chief administrative official under Abbasid caliphate | 143 | |
| 6816660937 | dhows | Arab sailing vessels that strongly influenced European ship design | 144 | |
| 6816660938 | ayan | the wealthy elite during Abbasid rule | 145 | |
| 6816660939 | al-mahdi | third of the Abbasid caliphs; tried but failed to attract moderate Shi'a | 146 | |
| 6816660940 | harun al-rashid | Abbasif caliph renowned for costly living; death led to civil wars over succession | 147 | |
| 6816660941 | buyids | regional splinter dynasty that captured and invaded Baghdad and ruled the Abbasid empire under the name Sultan | 148 | |
| 6816660942 | seljuk turks | nomadic invaders from central Asia; staunch Sunnis | 149 | |
| 6816660943 | crusades | series of military adventures launched by western Christians to free Holy Land from Muslims | 150 | |
| 6816660944 | Saladin | Muslim leader towards the end of the 12th century | 151 | |
| 6816660945 | Ottoman empire | turkic empire established in Asia Minor and eventually extending throughout Middle East | 152 | |
| 6816660946 | shah-nama | written by Firdawsi; relates history of Persian to Islamic conquests | 153 | |
| 6816660947 | ulama | orthodox religious scholars within Islam | 154 | |
| 6816660948 | al-Ghazali | Islamic theologian who tried to fuse Greek and Qur'anic traditions | 155 | |
| 6816660949 | mongols | central Asian nomadic peoples; killed last Abbasid caliph | 156 | |
| 6816660950 | chinggis khan | mongol khagan responsible for conquests of northern China and territories as far west as the Abbasid empire | 157 | |
| 6816660951 | Hulegu | grandson of Chinggis Khan; ruler of Ilkhan khanate; captured and destroyed Baghdad | 158 | |
| 6816660952 | Mamluks | Muslim slave warriors who defeated the mongols and halted their advance | 159 | |
| 6816660953 | Muhammad Ibn Qasim | arab general; conquered Sind in India; declared Sind and Indus valley part of the Umayyad empire | 160 | |
| 6816660954 | Mahmud of Ghazni | third ruler of turkish slave dynasty; gave muslims reputation for intolerance and aggression | 161 | |
| 6816660955 | Muhammad of Ghur | military commander of Persian extraction; began attempt to establish Muslim control in India | 162 | |
| 6816660956 | Qutb-Ud-Din Aibak | lieutenant of Muhammad of Ghur; established kingdom in India with capital at New Delhi and declared himself Sultan of India | 163 | |
| 6816660957 | bhaktic cults | Hindu groups dedicated to gods(esses); stressed importance of strong bonds between devotees and the god/ess who was the subject of their veneration | 164 | |
| 6816660958 | Mira Bai | Hindu religious poet; showed women the openness of bhaktic cults | 165 | |
| 6816660959 | Kabir | Muslim mystic; played down importance of ritual differences between Hinduism and Islam | 166 | |
| 6816660960 | Shrivijaya | trading empire between Malaya and Sumatra; Buddhist government; its demise opened southeast Asia to Islam | 167 | |
| 6816660961 | Malacca | portuguese factory that was a center for trade amongst southeastern Asian islands | 168 | |
| 6816660962 | Demak | most powerful trading state on north coast of Java; converted to Islam and served as point of dissemination to other parts of Asia | 169 | |
| 6816660963 | Ifriqiya | Arabic term for eastern north africa | 170 | |
| 6816660964 | Maghrib | Arabic term for western North Africa | 171 | |
| 6816660965 | Almoravids | puritanical reformist movement among Islamic Berber tribes of north Africa | 172 | |
| 6816660966 | Almohadis | Islamic Berber movement that penetrated sub-Saharan Africa | 173 | |
| 6816660967 | Sahel | extensive grassland belt at the southern edge of the Sahara | 174 | |
| 6816660968 | Sudanic states | kingdoms that developed during the height of Ghana's power in the region; included Mali and Songhai | 175 | |
| 6816660969 | juula | Malinke merchants; formed small partnerships to carry out trade throughout Mali empire | 176 | |
| 6816660970 | Sundiata | member of the Keita clan; created the Mali empire | 177 | |
| 6816660971 | Ibn Batuta | Arabic traveler who described African societies and cultures in his travel records | 178 | |
| 6816660972 | Timbuktu | port city of Mali; contained a library and a university | 179 | |
| 6816660973 | Songhai | successor state to Mali; capital at Gao | 180 | |
| 6816660974 | Muhammad the Great | extended the boundaries of the Songhai empire | 181 | |
| 6816660975 | Hausa | people of northern Nigeria who foremed states after the demise of Songhai; combined Islamic and pagan traditions | 182 | |
| 6816660976 | sharia | Islamic law | 183 | |
| 6816660977 | Nok | culture featuring highly developed art style in forests of central Nigeria | 184 | |
| 6816660978 | Yoruba | city-state in northern Nigeria featured artistic style, agricultural societies supported by peasantry and dominated by ruling families and aristocracy | 185 | |
| 6816660979 | Benin | powerful city-state in present day Nigeria and remained relatively free European influence | 186 | |
| 6816660980 | Kongo | agricultural kingdom on lower Congo River; capital at Mbanza Kongo and ruled by hereditary monarchy | 187 | |
| 6816660981 | Great Zimbabwe | Bantu confederation of Shona-speaking peoples located between Zambezi and Limpopo Rivers | 188 | |
| 6816660982 | Hagia Sofia | new church constructed in Constantinople during reign of Justinian | 189 | |
| 6816660983 | Belisarius | one of Justinian's most important military commanders during reconquest of western Europe | 190 | |
| 6816660984 | Greek fire | Byzantine weapon used to drive back Arab fleets that attacked Constantinople | 191 | |
| 6816660985 | Bulgaria | Slavic kingdom established in northern portions of the Balkan peninsula; constant source of pressure on Byzantine Empire | 192 | |
| 6816660986 | iconoclasm | religions controversy within the Byzantine Empire (emperor tried to suppress veneration of icons) | 193 | |
| 6816660987 | Cyril | missionary from Byzantine Empire who converted southern Russia/Balkans to Orthodox Christianity; responsible for Cyrillic | 194 | |
| 6816660988 | Methodius | along with Cyril converted southern Russia/Balkans to Orthodox Christianity | 195 | |
| 6816660989 | Kiev | trade city and capital in southern Russia established by Scandinavian traders | 196 | |
| 6816660990 | Rurik | Scandinavian regarded as founder of first kingdom of Russia in Kiev | 197 | |
| 6816660991 | Vladimir I | ruler of Russian kingdom of Kiev who converted it to Christianity | 198 | |
| 6816660992 | Russian orthodoxy | Russian form of Christianity imported from Byzantine Empire | 199 | |
| 6816660993 | Yaroslav | last of Kievan monarchs who issued legal codification based on codes from Byzantine empire | 200 | |
| 6816660994 | boyars | Russian aristocrats | 201 | |
| 6816660995 | tatars | mongols who captured Russian cities and largely destroyed Kieven state | 202 | |
| 6816660996 | middle ages | period in western European history from the decline and fall of the Roman empire until the 15th century | 203 | |
| 6816660997 | vikings | seagoing Scandinavian raiders who disrupted coastal areas of western Europe | 204 | |
| 6816660998 | manorialism | system that described economic/political relations between landlords and their peasant laborers during the middle ages | 205 | |
| 6816660999 | serfs | peasant agricultural laborers within the manorial system of the Middle Ages | 206 | |
| 6816661000 | moldboard | heavy plow introduced in northern Europe during the middle ages | 207 | |
| 6816661001 | three-field system | system of agricultural cultivation by the 9th century in western Europe | 208 | |
| 6816661002 | Clovis | early Frankish king who converted Franks to Christianity | 209 | |
| 6816661003 | Carolingians | royal house of Franks | 210 | |
| 6816661004 | Charles Martel | Carolingian monarch of Franks who defeated Muslims in Battle of Tours and ended Muslim threat to western Europe | 211 | |
| 6816661005 | Charlemagne | Carolingian monarch who established substantial empire in France in Germany | 212 | |
| 6816661006 | holy Roman emperors | emperors in northern Italy and Germany following split of Charlemagne's empire | 213 | |
| 6816661007 | feudalism | social organization created by exchanging grants of land or fiefs in return for formal oaths of allegiances and promises of loyal service | 214 | |
| 6816661008 | vassals | members of the military elite who received land or a benefice from a lord in return for military service and loyalty | 215 | |
| 6816661009 | William the Conqueror | invaded England from Normandy; extended feudalism to England; established centralized monarchy | 216 | |
| 6816661010 | Magna Carta | great charter issued by King John that confirmed feudal rights against monarchial claims | 217 | |
| 6816661011 | parliaments | bodies representing privileged groups | 218 | |
| 6816661012 | key three estates | church, nobles, and urban leaders | 219 | |
| 6816661013 | hundred years' war | conflict between England and France over lands England possessed in France | 220 | |
| 6816661014 | Pope Urban II | called the first crusade | 221 | |
| 6816661015 | Pope Gregory VII | pope who attempted to free church from interference of feudal lords | 222 | |
| 6816661016 | investiture | practice of state appointment of bishops | 223 | |
| 6816661017 | Peter Abelard | university scholar who applied logic to problems of theology | 224 | |
| 6816661018 | Bernard of Claireveaux | emphasized role of faith in preference to logic | 225 | |
| 6816661019 | Thomas Aquinas | creator of one of the great syntheses of medieval learning | 226 | |
| 6816661020 | scholasticism | use of logic to solve theological problems | 227 | |
| 6816661021 | gothic | architectural style during western Europe that featured pointed arches and flying buttresses | 228 | |
| 6816661022 | Hanseatic League | an organization of cities in northern Germany and southern Scandinavia to create a commercial alliance | 229 | |
| 6816661023 | guilds | sworn associations of people of the same business or trade in a single city | 230 | |
| 6816661024 | Black Death | plague that struck Europe during Dark Ages that significantly reduced its population and affected social structure | 231 |
