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| 4420608030 | factors contributing to economic globalization during the twentieth century | • The capitalist victors in World War II were determined to avoid a return to Depression-era conditions. • They forged a set of agreements and institutions (the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund) that laid the foundations for postwar globalization. This "Bretton Woods system" set the rules for commercial and financial dealings among the major capitalist countries, while promoting relatively free trade, stable currency values linked to the American dollar, and high levels of capital investment. • Technology also contributed to economic globalization; containerized shipping, huge oil tankers, and air express services dramatically lowered transportation costs, while fiber optic cables and later the Internet provided the communication infrastructure for global interaction. • Population growth, especially when tied to growing economies and modernizing societies, further fueled globalization as dozens of new nations, eager for modern development, entered the world economy. • In the 1970s and after, major capitalist countries like the United States abandoned many earlier political controls on economic activity as their leaders and businesspeople increasingly viewed the entire world as a single market. Powerful international lending agencies imposed similar free-market and pro-business conditions on many poor countries if they were to qualify for much-needed loans. • The collapse of the communist world only furthered such unrestricted global capitalism. | 0 | |
| 4420608031 | ways that economic globalization has linked the world's peoples more closely together | • World trade skyrocketed in the second half of the twentieth century; • money as well as goods achieved an amazing global mobility through foreign direct investment, the short-term movement of capital, and the personal funds of individuals; • companies have become increasingly transnational; • workers have been on the move more than ever. | 1 | |
| 4420608032 | new or sharper divisions that economic globalization has generated | • It has increased the gap between rich and poor in the world. • It has also increased gaps in many other areas, including educational and employment opportunities and access to medical care and the Internet. • It has created important disparities among developing countries, which are dependent in large part on their role in the world economy. • It has also generated economic inequalities within individual countries, both rich and poor ones. • It has created a split between those who support globalization and those who oppose it. | 2 | |
| 4420608033 | distinguished feminism in the industrialized countries from that of the Global South | • Many feminists in the Global South felt that feminism in the industrialized countries was too individualistic, overly focused on sexuality, and insufficiently concerned with issues of motherhood, marriage, and poverty to be of much use. • In the Global South, the feminist movement took up a variety of issues, not all of which were explicitly gender-based, including the creation in East Africa of small associations of women who supported one another in a variety of ways. In Morocco, the feminist movement targeted the changing of the Family Law Code. In South Korea, women's mobilization contributed to a "mass people's movement" that brought a return to democracy by the late 1980s. • The differences between the Northern and Southern movements sometimes surfaced at inter- national conferences such as the Mexico City gathering in 1975; the United States attempted to limit the meeting's agenda to matters of political and civil rights for women, while delegates from third world and communist countries wanted to include issues of economic justice, decolonization, and disarmament. | 3 | |
| 4420608034 | respects that various religious fundamentalists of the twentieth century expressed hostility to global modernity | • In the United States, fundamentalists at first sought to separate themselves from the secular world in their own churches and schools, but from the 1970s on, they entered the political arena as the religious right, determined to return America to a "godly path." • In India in the 1980s, a Hindu fundamentalist movement known as Hindutva entered the political arena, seeking to counter efforts by secular governments to cater to the interests of Muslims, Sikhs, and the lower castes. • In the late twentieth century in the Islamic world, fundamentalist Muslims expressed hostility in a number of ways, including the adoption of more observant forms of Islam, the foundation of Islamic organizations that operated legally to provide social services that the state offered inadequately or not at all, violent opposition to foreign powers that encroached on the Islamic world, and the launching of terrorist attacks on Western interests—defining the enemy not as Christianity itself or even Western civilization but as irreligious Western-style modernity, U.S. imperialism, and an American-led economic globalization. | 4 | |
| 4420608035 | sources that Islamic renewal movements derived from | • There were several factors that gave strength to Islamic activism. Political independence had given rise to major states such as Egypt, Iran, and Algeria that pursued essentially Western and secular policies of nationalism, socialism, and economic development, often with only lip service to an Islamic identity. These policies were not very successful, with many states beset by endemic problems that ran counter to the great expectations that had accompanied the struggle against European domination. • Foreign intrusion also played a role. Israel, widely regarded as an outpost of the West, had been reestablished as a Jewish state in the very center of the Islamic world in 1948. Broader signs of Western cultural penetration also appeared frequently in the Muslim world. • Islamic alternatives to Western models of modernity provided inspiration; in particular, the teachings of Mawlana Mawdudi and Sayyid Qutb asserted that the Quran and the sharia provided a guide for all of life and a blueprint for a distinctly Islamic modernity not dependent on Western ideas. | 5 | |
| 4420608036 | different ways that Islamic renewal expressed itself | • At the level of personal life, many people became more religiously observant, attending mosque, praying regularly, and fasting. Substantial numbers of women, many of them young, urban, and well educated, adopted modest Islamic dress and the veil quite voluntarily. Participation in Sufi mystical practices increased. • Many governments sought to anchor themselves in Islamic rhetoric and practice. • Across the Muslim world, renewal movements spawned organizations that operated legally to provide social services that the state offered inadequately or not at all. Islamic activists took leadership roles in unions and professional organizations of teachers, journalists, engineers, doctors, and lawyers. Such people embraced modern science and technology but sought to embed these elements of modernity within a distinctly Islamic culture. • Some sought the violent overthrow of what they saw as compromised regimes in the Muslim world, succeeding in both Iran and Afghanistan. • Islamic revolutionaries also took aim at hostile foreign powers, targeting Israel and, after the Soviet invasion of 1979, Afghanistan. • Others sought to attack Western interests, defining the enemy not as Christianity itself or even Western civilization but as irreligious Western-style modernity, U.S. imperialism, and an American-led economic globalization. | 6 | |
| 4420608037 | How we explain the dramatic increase in the human impact on the environment in the twentieth century | • The dramatic increase in the human impact on the environment can be attributed to the explosion in the human population; • the new ability of humankind to tap the energy potential of fossil fuels; • phenomenal economic growth as modern science and technology immensely increased the production of goods and services. Q. What differences emerged between environmental- ism in the Global North and that in the Global South? • Both activists and governments in the developing countries have often felt that Northern initiatives to address atmospheric pollution and global warming would curtail their industrial development, leaving the North/South gap intact. • Another North/South difference arose over the export of hazardous wastes generated in rich Northern countries to disposal sites in the developing countries | 7 |
