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| 5718277771 | 1.) How did trade networks in the post-classical era compare to the classical era | In the classical era and before, trade mainly existed within the empires. Greek, Roman, Persian, and Indian states grew agricultural produce and created other material goods that were traded throughout the city states and regions of the empire. This was usually accomplished through caravans, carts, crude roads, raw manpower, and ships on seas and rivers when available. This contained the goods within cultures and prevented interactions between neighboring people. In the post-Classical Era, the Silk Road opened up to connect the East and West with a superhighway for production and cultural exchange. Moreover, new ocean and sea routes were established as technology improved and wind patterns were charted. Overall, trade networks became farther-reaching, faster, and larger | 0 | |
| 5718284703 | 2.) What new technologies, governmental policies, and merchant activities accompanied these developments | The development of the compass and plotted wind patterns gave travelers better sailing abilities and confidence to make longer routes. Ship improvements came, too. Multiple masts, larger sails, better rudders, and thicker hulls all gave the ships more sailing power and greater storage. On land, continuous animal breeding and the horseshoe made land treks faster. Governments also invested in exploratory expeditions to develop shorter routes to desired nations. China sought out other nations, and many European states searched for a shorter route to the East. They also funded trade organizations, developed trade infrastructure, and supported production activities. Politically, they established relations for trade and fought for trade routes with aggressive nations. Merchants exploded in population size and also carried with them the cultures of the world. Languages, art, technologies, and religions were all spread by the merchants in this time | 1 | |
| 5718292750 | 3.) What role did the pastoral and nomadic groups play in these trade networks | Pastoral groups, if unable to remain isolated, became organized and run by larger trade groups as a part of the empires. Their land was organized and bettering farming techniques were used to grow more food for trade purposes, beyond the normal nourishment of the village or city. Nomadic groups sometimes became merchants themselves, due to their mobile cultural and familiarity with the routes. Other times, they provided stations along routes for travelers to stop and get supplies. For example, they would station themselves at intervals along the Silk Road in Eurasia and the Sand Road in Africa | 2 | |
| 5682524552 | 4.) How did the physical size of post-Classical trade networks compare to the previous era | Improved transportation technologies and commercial practices led to an increased volume of trade, and expanded the geographical range of existing and newly-active trade networks | 3 | |
| 5682533788 | 5.) What Classical era trade networks continued during the post-classical era, and which new cities were added during the post-Classical era | Existing trade routes flourished including the Silk Roads, the Mediterranean Sea, trans-Saharan and the Indian Ocean basin, and promoted the growth of powerful new trading cities (such as—to mention just a few— Novgorod, Timbuktu, Swahili city-states, Hangzhou, Calicut, Baghdad, Melaka, Venice, and, in the Americas, Tenochtitlan or Cahokia) | 4 | |
| 5682535425 | 6.) What new trade networks developed in this era | New trade routes between Mesoamerica and the Andes developed. | 5 | |
| 5682536527 | 7.) What new technologies enabled the growth of inter-regional trade networks | The growth of inter-regional trade in luxury goods (such as silk and cotton textiles, porcelain, spices, precious metals and gems, slaves or exotic animals) was encouraged by significant innovations in previously-existing transportation and commercial technologies, including more sophisticated caravan organization (such as caravanserai or camel saddles), use of the compass, astrolabe, and larger ship designs in sea travel, and new forms of credit and monetization (such as bills of exchange, credit, checks or banking houses) | 6 | |
| 5682537798 | 8.) What factors encouraged commercial growth in the post-classical era | Commercial growth was also facilitated by state practices (such as the minting of coins or use of paper money), trading organizations (such as the Hanseatic League), and state-sponsored commercial infrastructures like the Grand Canal in China | 7 | |
| 5682539780 | 9.) How did the expansion of empires and trade networks affect the relationship between peoples inside vs. outside those "zones" | The expansion of existing empires—including China, the Byzantine Empire, and the Caliphates—as well as new empires—like the Mongols—facilitated trans-Eurasian trade and communication as new peoples were drawn into their conquerors' economies and trade networks. | 8 | |
| 5682542262 | 10.) What were the effects of migration in the post-classical era | The movement of peoples caused environmental and linguistic effects | 9 | |
| 5682543792 | 11.) What basic understanding of environment and technology did post-classical traders need to conduct their business | The expansion and intensification of long-distance trade routes often depended on peoples' understanding of a particular regional environment and their subsequent technological adaptations to them (such as the way Scandinavian Vikings used their longboats to travel in coastal and open water as well as rivers and estuaries, the Arabs and Berbers adapted camels to travel across and around the Sahara or central Asian pastoral groups used horses to travel in the steppes) | 10 | |
| 5682546091 | 12.) What were the environmental effects of migration in the post-classical era | Some migrations had significant environmental impact, including the migration of the agricul- tural Bantu-speaking peoples who facilitated transmission of iron technologies in Sub-Saharan Africa, and the maritime migrations of the Polynesian peoples who cultivated transplanted foods and domesticated animals as they moved to new islands | 11 | |
| 5682547127 | 13.) What were the linguistic effects of migration in the post-classical era | Some migrations and commercial contacts led to the diffusion of languages throughout a new region or the emergence of new languages (such as the spread of Bantu languages, including Swahili, or the spread of Turkic and Arabic languages) | 12 | |
| 5682554301 | 14.) How did trade as a whole develop in the post-classical era | Cross-cultural exchanges were fostered by the intensification of existing or the creation of new networks of trade and communication | 13 | |
| 5682556601 | 15.) Why and where did Muslim trade networks change in the post-classical era | Islam developed in the Arabian peninsula from the interactions among Jews, Christians, and Zoroastrians with the local peoples and expanded to many parts of Afro-Eurasia due to military expansion and the activities of merchants and missionaries | 14 | |
| 5682558792 | 16.) What institutions did merchants create to foster both trade and cultural diffusion in the post-classical era | In key places along important trade routes, merchants set up diaspora communities where they introduced their own cultural traditions into the indigenous culture (such as Muslim merchant communities in the Indian Ocean region, Chinese merchant communities in Southeast Asia, Sogdian merchant communities throughout Central Asia or Jewish communities in the Mediterranean, Indian Ocean basin, or along the Silk Roads) | 15 | |
| 5682560891 | 17.) How well did post-classical societies know and understand each other | The writings of certain inter-regional travelers (such as Ibn Battuta, Marco Polo or Xuangzang) illustrate both the extent and the limitations of inter-cultural knowledge and understanding | 16 | |
| 5682563872 | 18.) How did post-classical trade affect the diffusion of literary, artistic, and cultural traditions | Increased cross-cultural interactions resulted in the diffusion of literary, artistic, and cultural traditions (such as the influence of Neo-Confucianism and Buddhism in East Asia, Hinduism and Buddhism in Southeast Asia, the influence of Islam in sub-Saharan Africa and Southeast Asia or the influence of Toltec/Mexica and Inca traditions in Meso- and Andean America) | 17 | |
| 5682569663 | 19.) How did post-classical trade affect the diffusion of scientific and technological traditions | Increased cross-cultural interactions also resulted in the diffusion of scientific and technological traditions (such as the influence of Greek and Indian mathematics on Muslim scholars, the return of Greek science and philosophy to western Europe via Muslim al-Andalus in Iberia, or the spread of printing and gunpowder technologies from East Asia into the Islamic empires and into Western Europe). | 18 | |
| 5682572840 | 20.) What were the biological effects of post-classical trade | There was continued diffusion of crops and pathogens throughout the Eastern Hemisphere along the trade routes | 19 | |
| 5682574848 | 21.) What new foods, crops, and agricultural practices diffused in post-classical era | New foods and agricultural techniques were adopted in populated areas (such as bananas in Africa, new rice varieties in East Asia, or the spread of cotton, sugar and citrus throughout Dar- al Islam and the Mediterranean basin) | 20 | |
| 5682582247 | 22.) What diseases and pathogens also spread via post-classical trade networks | The spread of epidemic diseases, including the Black Death, followed the well-established paths of trade and military conquest | 21 | |
| 5682583781 | 23.) How did state formations develop in the post-classical era | Empires collapsed and were reconstituted; in some regions new state forms emerged | 22 | |
| 5682585209 | 24.) How did post-classical states avoid the mistakes of classical empires in the regions where classical empires collapsed | Most reconstituted governments following the collapse of empires, including the Byzantine Empire and the Chinese dynasties—Sui, Tang, and Song—combined traditional sources of power and legitimacy (such as patriarchy, religion or land-owning elites) with innovations better suited to the current circumstances (such as new methods of taxation, tributary systems or adaptation of religious institutions) | 23 | |
| 5682586814 | 25.) What new forms of governance emerged in the post-classical | In some places, new forms of governance emerged, including those developed in various Islamic states (such as the Abbasids, Muslim Iberia or the Delhi sultanates), the Mongol Khanates, and city-states (such as in the Italian peninsula, East Africa or Southeast Asia) | 24 | |
| 5682587843 | 26.) How and where did government diffusion occur in the post-classical era | Some states synthesized local and borrowed traditions (such as Persian traditions influencing Islamic states or Chinese traditions influencing Japan) | 25 | |
| 5682590908 | 27.) How did states in the Americas develop in the post-classical era | In the Americas, as in Afro-Eurasia, state systems expanded in scope and reach: networks of city-states flourished in the Maya region, and, at the end of this period, imperial systems were created by the Mexica ("Aztecs") and Inca | 26 | |
| 5682593658 | 28.) What technological and cultural exchanges did states encourage in the post-classical | Inter-regional contacts and conflicts between states and empires encouraged significant technological and cultural transfers, for example between Tang China and the Abbasids, across the Mongol empires and during the Crusades | 27 | |
| 5682593659 | 29.) What were the overall worldwide economic trends in the post-classical era | Innovations stimulated agricultural and industrial production in many regions | 28 | |
| 5682606975 | 30.) What new innovations affected agriculture in the post-classical era | Agricultural production increased significantly due to technological innovations (such as Champa rice varieties, the chinampa field systems, waru waru raised field cultivation in the Andean areas, improved terracing techniques or the horse collar) | 29 | |
| 5682608910 | 31.) How and why did crops migrate during the post-classical era | In response to increasing demand in Afro-Eurasia for foreign luxury goods, crops were transported from their indigenous homelands to equivalent climates in other regions | 30 | |
| 5682617219 | 32.) How did textile and porcelain production develop in the post-classical era | Chinese, Persian, and Indian artisans and merchants expanded their production of textiles and porcelains for export; industrial production of iron and steel expanded in China | 31 | |
| 5682619899 | 33.) Why did the post-classical urban areas decline, while others prospered and grew | The fate of cities varied greatly, with periods of significant decline, and periods of increased urbanization buoyed by rising productivity and expanding trade networks | 32 | |
| 5682627964 | 34.) What roles did cities play in thier urban societies during the post-classical era | While cities in general continued to play the roles they had played in the past as governmental, religious and commercial centers, many older cities declined at the same time that numerous new cities took on these established roles. NOTE: Students should be able to explain the cultural, religious, commercial and governmental function of at least two major cities | 33 | |
| 5682631028 | 35.) How did social and labor systems develop during the post-classical | Despite significant continuities in social structures and in methods of production, there were also some important changes in labor management and in the effects of religious conversion on gender relations and family life | 34 | |
| 5682633014 | 36.) What pre-existing labor systems develop during the post-classical era | As in the previous period, the main forms of labor organization included free peasant agriculture, nomadic pastoralism, craft production and guild organization, along with various forms of coerced and unfree labor and government imposed labor taxes and military obligations | 35 | |
| 5682636350 | 37.) How did social and gender hierarchies develop in the post-classical era | As in the previous period, social structures were shaped largely by class and caste hierarchies. Patriarchy persisted; however, in some areas, women exercised more power and influence, most notably among the Mongols and in West Africa, Japan and Southeast Asia | 36 | |
| 5682639685 | 38.) What new labor forms developed in the post-classical eraI | New forms of coerced labor appeared including serfdom in Europe and Japan and the elaboration of the mit'a in the Inca Empire. Free peasants resisted attempts to raise dues and taxes by staging revolts (such as in China or the Byzantine Empire). The demand for slaves for both military and domestic purposes increased particularly in central Eurasia, parts of Africa and the eastern Mediterranean | 37 | |
| 5682640281 | 39.) Who did some gender roles and family structure change in the post-classical era | The diffusion of Buddhism, Christianity, Islam and Neo-Confucianism often led to significant changes in gender relations and family structure | 38 |
