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| 13515586766 | Muhammad | Around 610 CE, Muhammad had a transformational spiritual experience and traveled through the Arabian Peninsula proclaiming that he was the last prophet of Allah. He believed in one God(Allah). Allah's words were given to Muhammad and collected by his followers and compiled in the Qur'an. The Hadith, a record of the sayings attributed to Muhammad and accounts of the prophet's deeds, serves as a guide for interpretation of the Qur'an and for social and legal customs. The Hadith lays out the concept of the five pillars, tenets central to Islam. Muhammad's journey to Mecca became a symbolic starting point of the official Islamic calendar and a religious pilgrimage for the followers of Islam. he was the last prophet; both Moses and Jesus were considered prophets before him. | 0 | |
| 13517857517 | Expansion of Islam | During the 640s, Muslims conquered Byzantine Egypt and North Africa. By 651, Muslims controlled the Sassanid dynasty and Persia. By 718, Muslims controlled Hindu India, northwestern Africa, and the Iberian Peninsula. Muslims allowed conquered people(especially Christians and Jews) to maintain their own religious practices but required those who did not convert to Islam to pay a tax(jizya). Positions of power and authority were reserved for Muslims. Rapid expansion in the century after Muhammad's death was the work of early caliphs who spread the world through pilgrimages. Islam also spread through trade and warfare. Between 633 and 637, Muslims took control of Byzantine Syria and Palestine and seized most of Mesopotamia from the Sassanids. | 1 | |
| 13517892634 | Abbasid Dynasty | Abbasids, headquartered in Baghdad, allowed Muslims as well as Persians, Egyptians, and Mesopotamians to rise to positions of power and wealth. The empire continued to grow mostly as a result of independent military forces, not military conquest, led by the caliphs. The Abbasid dynasty focused energy on ruling their empire, which included a variety of linguistic, cultural, religious, and ethnic groups. Trade arrangements held the empire together; trade was conducted with China, India, and sub-Saharan Africa. Officials included ulama, religious experts, and qadis, judges; both resolved local disputes and set moral standards. In 750 the Umayyad dynasty ended after a rebellion in Persia led by Abu al-Abbas, who founded the Abbasid dynasty, a Muslim state, the main source of power in the Dar al-Islam("house of Islam"). | 2 | |
| 13517940673 | Trade within Eastern Hemisphere | Commercial centers in Nishapur, Bukhara, and Samarkand facilitated the revival of trade over the Silk Road(perpetuated by the Muslims). Classical roads, originally commissioned by India and Persia and revived by Muslims, provided quick and efficient travel through the Dar al-Islam. Overland trade was conducted by camel caravan(camels are better suited to traverse deserts than horses or donkeys). Caravanseries provided lodging, food, and water for traveling merchants and their animals. Technological advances, such as the compass, the lateen sail, and the astrolabe, led to increasing travel in the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, Arabian Sea, and Indian Ocean. Abbasids encouraged larger-scale trade by reinstituting letters of credit-sakk(checks, an idea later used in Europe). | 3 | |
| 13517986061 | Indian Ocean Trade Network | The Indian Ocean Network was the dominant trade network in the post-classical period. It boasts the largest volume of goods traded, largest number of people involved, and the interaction of the most diverse selection of cultures. Like during the previous time period, it was closely tied to environmental conditions, particularly the monsoon winds that merchants had to consider when planning their voyages. As a result, port cities along tended to have large numbers of non-citizens waiting for changes in the monsoon winds. Therefore, port cities were cosmopolitan and tolerated a variety of cultural practices. As a maritime network, the Indian Ocean trade continued to be the ideal network for exchanging bulk items(timber, ivory, spices, cotton textiles) because they would have been difficult to move on land routes. Also, the Indian Ocean network continued to be free(not controlled by any particular state or empire) and open to all merchants until the arrival of the Europeans. | 4 | |
| 13518069947 | The Qur'an and Women | Improved the security of women in Arabian society: outlawed female infanticide and ruled that dowries go to brides(not husbands). Described women as honorable individuals equal to men, not property. Both the Qur'an and sharia emphasized male dominance: descent through the male line, male inheritance, strict control of women by male guardians. Social customs were influenced by Islamic beliefs: men were permitted to take up four wives(polygamy), women were veiled in public. The Qur'an helped and hurt women. | 5 | |
| 13533194709 | Influences on the Dar al-Islam(Persian, Indian, and Greek) | Arabic term referring to the "house of Islam" and the lands under Islamic rule. Persian influences: administrative techniques; ideas of kingship(greatly influenced caliphs); Persian language, written and spoken, used in literature, poetry, history, and political though(for example, The Arabian Nights). Indian influences: mathematics, Arabic/Hindi numbers, symbol for zero, algebra, trigonometry, geometry. The City of Calicut was a center of trade for Egyptians and Arabs. Pepper was exported from there to there to the Red Sea and Europe. Greek influences: philosophy, science, medical writings(especially Plato and Aristotle). Arabic libraries and museums held translated Greek and Roman works. Citrus, cotton, and sugar spread throughout the Mediterranean area and Dar al-Islam. Chinese influences-Chinese in the Tang dynasty taught Abbasids how to make paper. Increased cross-cultural interactions led to cultural diffusion and technological innovations. | 6 | |
| 13533256159 | Islam in Northern India | Muslim forces reached India by the mid-7th century. Migrations and invasions of Turkish-speaking people from central Asia. Mahmud Ghanzni, the Turkish leader in Afghanistan, destroyed hundred of Hindu and Buddhist sites; Buddhism's decline ironically did not tarnish Islam's reputation with Indians. Sultans ruled Punjab to the Ganges valley from 1206-1526. Muslim merchants reached the northern and southern coasts of India; Islam was spread easily using connections established through relationships with Arabs and Persians prior to Muhammad. | 7 | |
| 13533346967 | Sui Dynasty | Built a strong central government with work done by peasants. Public works projects included palaces, granaries, and repair of defensive walls; most elaborate project was the Grand Canal. Grand Canal: A series of artificial waterways that connected Hangzhou to Chang'an(almost 2,000 km); said to be forty paces wide with service roads running on either side. These waterways accounted for large expenditures from the government treasury; money came from taxes and dividends from Grand Canal, which linked northern and southern economies; the people of China reaped its benefits for years to come. 610s: Rebellions broke out in northern China. 618: Emperor Sui Yangdi was assassinated and dynasty ended. After centuries of turmoil following the Han dynasty, the Sui emerged to restore peace and order. | 8 | |
| 13533422376 | Tang Dynasty | Restored peace and stability after the fall of the Sui dynasty. Second emperor, Tang Taizong(627-649); saw himself as a Confucian ruler. His successes led to the belief that this period was unusually prosperous and peaceful. He built impressive capital at Chang'an. Military expeditions during the 7th century made Chang'an very cosmopolitan due to the influx of a variety of ethnic groups including Sogdians, who ran wine shops, and Turks, who traded Buddhist artifacts during the 9th century. Maintained the empire through a system of roads with horses, human runners, inns, postal stations, and stables. The equal field and taxation systems maintained the balance of property between rich and poor. Government jobs in extensive bureaucracy were merit-based, determined through a series of civil service examinations, similar to the Han dynasty. The reinstitution of the civil service system reinforced traditional Chinese values, such as patriarchy. Xuanzang, a traveler, scholar, Chinese Buddhist monk who described interaction between China and India during the early Tang dynasty. | 9 | |
| 13533490916 | Song Dynasty | Followed the Tang dynasty. First emperor, Song Taizu, started policy of distrust of military leaders-focused on civil service exams(based on Confucian philosophy), industry, education, and the arts. Used paper money, introduced tea drinking, invention of compass. Staple crop rice-supports population increase. Capital Hangzhou, which becomes an important new trading city during this time period. First incontrovertible evidence of foot binding during this time period-Lady Huang. Became deeply rooted in Chinese culture, widespread among upper classes, and continued despite later attempts to ban the practice until 1911. Financial problems faced by the Song: bureaucracy too big. Military problems: scholar-bureaucrats' limited military experience led Song to military failures. Like the dar-al Islam, Tang and Song China benefited from the introduction of new crops and agricultural techniques such as irrigation. | 10 | |
| 13533530746 | Technological Development of Tang and Song Dynasties | Advances were made possible as a result of abundant food supplies. High-quality porcelain-produced as a result of firing with glazes-became utensils and works of art; later diffused to other societies. Metallurgical technologies: Iron and steel were made stronger by using iron, instead of coal, under higher furnace temperatures. Military advances: Gunpowder(a mixture of charcoal, saltpeter, sulfur, and arsenic) was ultimately used effectively in military battles. Printing technology: Thanks to movable type, texts were produced faster, cheaper, and in greater quantities. These advances stimulated trade and production throughout the eastern hemisphere during this time period. | 11 | |
| 13533560756 | Neo-Confucianism | Developed in response to the growing popularity of Buddhism. Scholars of the Song dynasty combined their studies of Confucian beliefs with the writings of Buddhism; continuation of civil service examination staffed government positions. Buddhism was appealing because it incorporated logical thought with such issues as nature, the soul, and the relationship between the individual and the cosmos. Neo-Confucian philosopher Zhu Xi(1130-1200) wrote Family Ritual, a detailed set of instructions for weddings, funerals, and other family ceremonies, stressing appropriate personal behavior for social harmony. Neo-Confucianism is important because it shows Buddhism's lasting influence on Chinese society and throughout East Asia and how this cultural practice was transferred to Korea and Japan. | 12 | |
| 13533598960 | Early Japan | The earliest inhabitants of Japan(the Jomon), were nomadic peoples from northeastern Asia. Came with their own language, culture, and religion. Japan fused their traditional Shinto beliefs with Chinese Buddhism and Confucianism. Heian period(794-1195)-centralized power in the Fujiwara family. Based on Chinese values, only boys received a formal education though women contributed to Japanese literature(Ex: Lady Murasaki's Tale of Ganji). Decline resulted from a failure of the equal-field system; land became concentrated into the hands of a small group of the wealthy elite. An agricultural society inspired by Tang China; instituted a series of reforms to centralize power. Nara was built as a replica of Chang'an(710-794). | 13 | |
| 13533634985 | Medieval Japan | Includes the Kamakura and Muromachi periods. Characterized by decentralized political power in which regional warlords(daimyo) controlled land and economy(Chinese-style bureaucracy was abandoned). Valued military talent and discipline. Samurai(mounted warriors) played an important role in Japanese society; they observed bushido(the way of the warrior), which emphasized the importance of loyalty to the warrior's lord. Medieval period ended by Tokugawa dynasty, which centralized power and unified Japan in the 16th century. Similarly, European feudalism also valued warriors(knights) and their conduct(chivalry-although in Europe this took on more of a societal code). | 14 | |
| 13533967746 | Frankish Empire | Franks built a society based on agriculture in Europe's northern region(France, Germany, and the Low Countries) and oversaw the development of decentralized political institutions in those areas. Clovis(strong political and military leader) led successful campaigns; one campaign finally ended Roman authority in Gaul and established the Frankish Empire as the most powerful and dynamic of the new states in western Europe. Frankish unification of western Europeans made Muslim defeat possible at Tours in 732. Clovis(and thus the Franks) converted to Christianity and thereby gained the support of Christians from the former Roman Empire, the pope, and the hierarchy of the western Catholic Church. | 15 | |
| 13533999107 | Carolingian Empire | Charlemagne was very intelligent, multilingual, and gifted in diplomacy. He extended the empire into northeastern Spain, Bavaria, and Italy, and as far south as Rome. Without the funding for a bureaucracy, Charlemagne wielded power on his own and traveled throughout his empire during most of his reign. With help from aristocratic deputies or counts, who had political, military, and legal authority over local issues, the legitimacy of his empire was pronounced by the Roman Catholic Church. Charlemagne established a new group of imperial officials in an effort to increase control of central government; missi dominici("envoys of the lord ruler") traveled to all local jurisdictions annually to oversee local authorities. High point for the Franks came under Charlemagne("Charles the Great," ruled 768-814). He quelled disputes between local leaders when he reclaimed centralized imperial rule. | 16 | |
| 13534067012 | Decline of Carolingian Empire | Charlemagne accepted the title of emperor from the pope in 800 but died shortly thereafter, in 814. Charlemagne was succeeded by his son, Louis the Pious, who kept the empire together. Not as brilliant as his father, Louis subsequently lost control of his bureaucracy. Louis's three sons fought over their inheritance-each got an equal portion(Treaty of Verdun, 843) of the now dissolved empire. External pressures were a factor in the decline: Muslims from the south, Magyars from the east, and Vikings from the north. | 17 | |
| 13534092369 | Feudalism | Land(called fiefs), a traditional source of power and legitimacy, was given in exchange for protection; lords lived off the surplus crops of their vassals. Political and social order of medieval Europe. Based on a hierarchy of lords and vassals who controlled political and military affairs. Established by European nobles in an attempt to protect their lands and maintain order during a time of weak central power and frequent invasions. Local lords had the power to administer local affairs, collect taxes, mobilize armed forces, and settle legal disputes. Characterized by a strong connection between local political and military authorities. A feudal system was also instituted in Japan under the Tokugawa Shogunate(independent of the European system). | 18 | |
| 13534132786 | Feudalism in Europe in Japan | Code of Conduct-Europe: chivalry; Japan: Bushido. Warriors-Europe: knights; Japan: samurai. Local Leaders-Europe: lords, Japan: daimyo In both societies, aristocratic women managed their respective households. Ruler-Europe: king; Japan: emperor(really a figurehead; control rested with shogun). Compare the system of feudalism in Europe and Japan. Both were built according to hereditary classes and tradition. | 19 | |
| 13546312687 | Manor Life | A manor is a large estate consisting of fields, meadows, forests, domestic animals, lakes, rivers, and the serfs bound to the land. In medieval Europe, manors were self-sufficient communities that maintained bakeries, mills, breweries, and wineries. Under the lord's direction, serfs produced most of the necessary iron tools, leather goods, textiles, and domestic utensils. Small local markets(usually located near monasteries) provided manors with goods they could not produce themselves(Ex: salt). Lord of the manor(usually a political and military leader) established and provided government, police services, and justice for the manor. Three-field system was used to rotate crops and preserve nutrients. Under this system coerced labor formed in Europe as well as in Japan and mit'a in the Incan Empire. Some free peasants resisted these systems through revolts. | 20 | |
| 13546347241 | Holy Roman Empire | To thank him for reestablishing Christian authority in the region, Pope John XII declared Otto the Holy Roman Emperor in 962. Impressive title coupled with a lifelong power and legitimacy struggle between the pope(religious) and secular leaders(land-owning elites) throughout Europe. Germany: Pope Gregory VII's ending of the practice of lay investiture(by which emperors could select and install church officials) was challenged by Henry IV, who was immediately excommunicated; a rebellion by German princes led to reinstallation of Henry. As the Carolingian Empire ended, local authorities extended their power, including Otto of Saxony, who established himself as the king in northern Germany and invaded Italy in the name of peace and the church. Ultimately encompassed Germany and at times Eastern Europe and Italy. | 21 | |
| 13546377833 | Feudal Monarchies | With strong central power uniting western Europe after the fall of Rome, regional monarchies developed in France and England. France: Hugh Capet succeeded the Carolingians; his descendants, known as the Capetian kings, used their power and resources to systematically consolidate and expand their influence. England: Norman dukes built a tightly knit state in which all power disseminated from them. The papacy and Italian city-states: Bologna, Genoa, Milan, Florence, and Venice(a powerful new trading city). Maintained order, provided relatively stable and effective government, later provided impetus for ocean-going explorations. | 22 | |
| 13546405150 | Establishment of Nation-States in Western Europe | New strong nations with centralized authority emerged after the feudal period in Italy, Spain, France, and England. Two essential components to state building: capital(taxes) and a large standing army. Spain's state building peaked when Ferdinand of Aragon married Isabella of Castile to unite two previously independent Iberian regions. Process began in Italy as a result of papal influence and large flow of post-crusades capital from trade. After the Hundred Years' War, France and England raised armies and levied taxes. | 23 | |
| 13546424336 | Hanseatic League(Hansa) | A trade network that developed in the Baltic and North Sea(1400s-1600s). It spanned from Novgorod to London and encompassed the commercial centers of Poland, northern Germany, and Scandinavia; linked to the Mediterranean through the Rhine and Danube rivers. Traded grain, fish, furs, timber, and pitch. Commercial partnerships further increased the volume of trade in Europe. Frequency of trade led to the adoption of letters of credit and banking systems, which made trade possible on a large scale, since the risk of carrying cash of bullion was eliminated. Impact on class structure of northern Europe made social mobility possible. | 24 | |
| 13546468134 | Feudal Society, Europe | Clergy was usually dealt with according to church law and exempt from secular courts. Nobles emphasized chivalry(an ethical code of behavior for nobles); required knights to pledge their allegiance to order, piety, and the Christian faith. Aristocratic women embraced chivalry-the meaning extended to include refined behavior and courtship. Troubadours(traveling poets, minstrels, and entertainers) captured this sentiment in their works. Eleanor of Aquitaine encouraged the cultivation of good manners, refinement, and romantic love. Medieval society was usually divided into three classes: Clergy, warrior, and worker-a clear illustration of the political, social, and economic inequality that existed with limited or no social mobility. | 25 | |
| 13546496165 | Education and Religion in the European Middle Ages | Basic education was occasionally provided to the elite and their children in schools by monasteries or political leaders who brought scholars to their courts. Curriculum had its foundations in the Bible, but by the 12th century to formal curriculum, based on writings in Latin, focused on liberal arts(literature and philosophy), and works by St. Augustine, St. Jerome, Plato, and Aristotle. Schools organized in the cathedrals of Paris and Bologna(which became the first universities) attracted students from across Europe. Faculty guilds entrusted teachers with the ability to award academic degrees(licenses to teach in other cities) and transformed cathedral schools into universities. Reintroduction of Aristotle led to the development of scholastic theology-movement spearheaded at the University of Paris by St. Thomas Aquinas, who suggested that God's existence did not depend on faith but could be rationally proven. | 26 | |
| 13546526619 | Influence of Christianity in Europe | Franks solidified Christianity as a foundation of the empire when Clovis converted. Charlemagne continued to commitment to Rome. The pope was established as the single most important figure, providing the church with a sense of direction. Pope Gregory I protected the city of Rome and the church by mobilizing forces for the purpose of defense; he reasserted papal supremacy and increased the role and importance of the church in people's lives. Italy worked to spread Christianity north, as did Charlemagne; by 1000, Christianity was the accepted religion in most of western Europe. | 27 | |
| 13546553024 | Ghengis Khan | Temujin, a prominent Mongol warrior, accrued power by allying several clans. Showing personal courage in battle, he brought all Mongol tribes under a single confederation in 1206 and was proclaimed Genghis Khan("universal ruler"). Broke up Mongol tribes, forced men of fighting age to join new military units with no tribal affiliation, and gave high military and political officials positions on the basis of talent and loyalty. Built a luxurious capital at Karakorum; valued the army above all else. Used equestrian skills honed by hunting and competitive horseback games; cavalry was the backbone of the army. United central Asia and attacked Tibet, northern China, Persia, and the central Asian steppes. | 28 | |
| 13546581553 | Marco Polo | Traveled from Italy to China during Mongol times. Polo's dad and uncle were among the first European merchants to visit China. They introduced Polo to Kublai Khan, who liked Polo and appreciated his controversial and storytelling abilities; Kublai entrusted Polo on several diplomatic trips. Polo traveled to remote parts of China from Venice by land, and on the return voyage, he went to Sumatra, Ceylon, India, and Arabia by sea. The stories of Polo's travels were immortalized when he was taken as a prisoner of war when Venice and Genoa were feuding. A fellow prisoner, a romance writer, translated Polo's tales of travel along the Silk Roads into a text that rapidly circulated throughout Europe. Inspired Columbus and others to attempt to find a passage to the East. | 29 | |
| 13547264016 | Mongol-Christian Diplomacy | Mongols and western Europe had a common enemy: the Muslims. European crusaders tried to recapture Jerusalem from the Muslims, and Mongols attacked the Abbasid Empire from the east. Pope Innocent IV sent missionaries to convert the Mongol Khans to Christianity to no avail; although welcomed by the Khans, ultimately unsuccessful. Large imperial states were connected by extensive trading networks. For transcriptions between states to go smoothly, it was imperative that political and diplomatic ties be strong. This diplomacy resulted in renewed use of the Silk Road, which reestablished trade between East Asia and Europe(creating what became known as the Pax Mongolica, or "Mongol Peace"). | 30 | |
| 13547292847 | Mongol Empire | Kublai Khan(grandson of Chinggis/Ghengis) consolidated Mongol rule in China. Forced Chinese to move to South East Asia and establish trading communities there. This is an example of a diasporic community. Failed to conquer Vietnam, Cambodia, Burma, Java, and Japan. Golden Horde(a groups of Mongols) overran Russia(1237-1241) and also explored Poland, Hungary, and eastern Germany. Kublai's brother Hulegu conquered the Abbasid Empire in Persia and attempted to expand to Syria, but failed. Mongol rule in Persia deferred to local Persian authorities, who administered the il-khanate as long as they delivered taxes to the Mongols and maintained order. Established the Yuan dynasty in China in 1279, ushering in a period known as the Pax Mongolica. | 31 | |
| 13547324970 | Decline of Mongols | Il-khan tried to save itself from economic ruin by introducing paper money; this attempt to bring precious metals back to the government was a failure-merchants refused to accept paper money and closed up shop. Economic troubles were coupled with factional struggles in Persia, and when the last of the Mongol rulers died without an heir in 1335, the il-khanate collapsed. In China, added to a growing list of problems, inflation and epidemic disease(the bubonic plague) resulted in depopulation and labor shortages. Mongols under the Golden Horde continued to maintain power in the Caucasus and the Crimean peninsula exacting tribute until the late 15th century. Mongol rule in Persia and Chine(Yuan dynasty) declined shortly after the death of Kublai Khan as a result of financial difficulties(excessive spending and reduced revenues); also, Mongols lacked sufficient experience in governing a settled society. | 32 | |
| 13562584427 | Ottoman Empire | Established by Osman when he declared independence from Seljuk sultan and began to build a state out of the declining Byzantine Empire in 1299-followers became known as Osmanlis, or Ottomans. Turks first arrived on horseback in the Middle East in the 11th century. Created multinational, centralized bureaucracy. 1453: Sultan Mehmed II(Mehmed the Conqueror) captured Constantinople and renamed it Istanbul. By 1480 Ottomans controlled the remainder of the Byzantine Empire, Greece, and the Balkan region. Established foundations for empire in the Balkan Peninsula; delayed by Tamerlane when he destroyed Ottoman forces in 1402, but after Tamerlane's death Ottomans reestablished power. | 33 | |
| 13562597482 | Ghana | Primary state of West Africa: Located between the Senegal and Niger rivers from 750-1250. Strengthened empire through taxation and control of gold trade; also traded ivory and slaves. In exchange for gold, Ghana received horses, cloth, manufactured goods, and salt. Islam spread to Ghana across trade routes. Ghana became increasingly important as a result of increased trans-Saharan trade(especially gold, which Ghana itself did not produce but acquired from the south). | 34 | |
| 13562603470 | Mali and Mansa Musa | Important cities: Niani(capital), Timbuktu(important trading city), Gao, and Jenne. Mali rulers honored Islam. King Mansa Musa made a pilgrimage to Mecca(1324-1325) and brought with him a huge caravan of soldiers, attendants, subjects, slaves, and camels carrying gold. Built capital at Timbuktu. Mansa Musa built mosques to honor Islam and sent subjects to study under Muslim scholars. Established religious schools with Arabian and North African teachers. Mali found trans-Saharan trade more beneficial than Ghana; controlled and taxed almost all trade through West Africa; connected to North Africa through huge caravans. Traded gold, salt, ivory, and slaves. | 35 | |
| 13562615841 | Ibn Battuta | 14th-century Muslim traveler. Most celebrated Muslim traveler in the postclassical world; an Islamic scholar who kept a record of his travels throughout the Dar al-Islam. Traveled to India, the Maldive Island, the Swahili city-states of East Africa, and the Mali Empire. Worked in government positions everywhere he went, usually as a qadi(adviser); supervised monetary affairs of the mosque and heard cases of law-strictly enforced Muslim standards of justice. Displeased with the syncretic nature of Islam(Ex: How it blended with native beliefs). Through his various posts he promoted the proper observance of Islam in societies new to the religion and its beliefs; he was unsuccessful in persuading island and African women to meet Islamic standards of modesty in dress. | 36 | |
| 13562648153 | East African Cultures | The Bantu grew bananas(brought to East Africa by the Polynesians). Used irrigation and terracing techniques. Examples of diffusion of crops and adaptations based on environmental knowledge. People living along the coasts of supplemented Bantu advances with ocean fishing and maritime trade-builders of Swahili society. The Swahili controlled the eastern coast of Africa from Mogadishu to Kilwa and the Comoro Islands of Sofala; spoke Swahili and supplemented it with Arabic. This is an example of diffusion(spread) of languages. Eastern coast of Africa attracted attention from Islamic merchants, who brought wares(such as pottery, glass, and textiles) from Persia, India, and China in exchange for local products(tortoise shells, leopard skins). They also benefited from trade as they were the recipients of gold, ivory, and exotic animals. City-states important for trade: Mogadishu, Lamu, Malindi, Mobassa, Kilwa, Mozambique, and Sofala. Bantus migrated to the eastern coast of Africa-bringing agriculture, cattle herding, and iron metallurgy-and developed complex societies governed by small, local states. | 37 | |
| 13562666395 | Traditional African Religious Beliefs | Lesser gods and spirits were associated with the sun, wind, rain, trees, rivers, and other forces of nature(animism). Belief that the souls of dead ancestors had the power to intervene in a person's life, positively or negatively, depending on how the ancestors had been revered. Rituals included prayers, animal sacrifices, and ceremonies marking birth, marriage, and death. Religious specialists were believed to have the ability to mediate between humans and the spirit world; in times of despair, they were consulted and in turn consulted oracles and prescribed remedies(medicines, sacrifices). No unified religious beliefs. Many were monotheistic, with a single divine male force who was both omnipotent and omniscient(seen as being responsible for setting the world in motion and providing it with order). | 38 | |
| 13562678714 | Religious Reform Movements During the European Middle Ages | Orders of mendicants("beggars"): St. Dominic founded the Dominicans and St. Francis founded the Franciscan friars; both pledged to give up all personal possessions and beg for their food and other necessities from the people to whom they preached, and both worked to combat heterodox movements and bring heretics back to the church. The Cathars(Albigensians) took up the heretical teachings of groups such as the Bogomils, who advocated a pure, spiritual existence and who preached that the world was the scene of a larger battle between good and evil and that material possessions were evil. Gave up wealth and marriage and became vegetarians; saw the church as corrupt. Pope Innocent III called for an "Albigensian crusade" to destroy the Cathars. The Waldensians(active in southern France and northern Italy) supported a modest and simple lifestyle, in direct opposition to the Roman Catholic clergy, whom they claimed were corrupt and immoral. Believed in right of the laity to preach and administer sacraments. | 39 | |
| 13562814877 | Medieval Colonization | Scandinavians, led by Eric the Red, established a colony in Greenland during the late 9th and early 10th centuries. About 1000, Lief Ericsson established a colony in Newfoundland, Canada, for Scandinavia and called it Vinland-it had plentiful supplies of timber and fish. Vinland was most likely occupied for several decades-ultimately settlers left or died there because of a lack of resources. The Vikings of Scandinavia, specifically Denmark, southern Norway, and southern Sweden, established colonies in Iceland and then Greenland. Once regional states emerged to protect Europe, Vikings looked to colonize elsewhere. The Scandinavian Vikings had success exploring because they had longships, which they had developed as a result of their desires to leave home in the 8th century. The longships served them well indeed for many explorations. | 40 | |
| 13562835999 | Crusades | Fervent Christians formed religious/military orders: Templars, Hospitallers, and Teutonic Knights. When the pope declared a crusade(holy war), warriors would "take up the cross" and fight on behalf of their faith(wearing crosses sewn onto their backs as a symbol of their faith). Peter the Hermit traveled throughout Germany, France, and the Low Countries in an effort to increase support for the Crusades; he was successful in organizing an untrained, ill-prepared group of poor knights and eager peasants who failed to recapture the Holy Land but who generated popular support for the cause. There were crusades against the Cathars and other heretics in the Balkans, but the term usually refers to the series of five holy ways declared by Pope Urban II in 1095 against the Muslims in an effort to recapture Palestine and Jerusalem. | 41 | |
| 13562862636 | Results of the Crusades | Increased cultural diffusion-Europe was reintroduced to Greco-Roman culture, which had been preserved by the Byzantine Empire, and, in addition, discovered eastern goods such as silk, rice, glass, and coffee. Byzantine Empire, feudal nobles, and papal power and the church were weakened. European technology improved. Led to the development of the High Middle Ages as demand rose for "new" goods and ideas and led to increased trade. People moved off of manors to towns and cities. The power of kings increased. | 42 | |
| 13562870053 | Toltecs | Migrated to central Mexico, settled Tula during the 8th century. Irrigated crops of maize, beans, peppers, tomatoes, chilies, and cotton from the Tula River to support 60,000 people at peak. Army maintained a tightly knit empire. Important center of pottery and weaving; imported turquoise, jade, animal skins, and other luxury goods from Mesoamerica. By 1175, problems between different ethnic groups and emerging nomadic tribes from northwestern Mexico destroyed the state. | 43 | |
| 13562878947 | Aztecs | Aztecs(Mexica) migrated to central Mexico and established an empire based on military conquest; seized women and land from neighbors. Settled on island in the middle of Lake Texcoco in 1345 and built capital, Tenochtitlan(a trading city), modern-day Mexico City. Fished at first, then developed farming system called chinampas(shaped mud from lake floor into small plots of land that "floated" in the middle of the lake). They developed a system of canals to irrigated in the dry season and grew beans, squash, maize, tomatoes, peppers, and chilies for exchange in the marketplace. Lake provided a natural defense in case of attack. Known as "the cannibal kingdom" for their widespread practice of human sacrifice. Attempts to expand into southwestern Mexico led to the formation of a triple alliance: Aztecs, Texcoco, and Tlacopan assessed tribute and left local government in place as long as they paid up. | 44 | |
| 13562897045 | Aztec Religion | Gods: Tezcatlipoca,"The Smoking Mirror"(the giver and taker of life), and Quetzalcoatl, "the Feathered Serpent"(supported arts, crafts, and agriculture). Gods made the world work through personal sacrifice(blood flow led to irrigation of crops); practiced sacrificial bloodletting. Sacrificed humans to appease war god, Huitzilopochtli; built a temple in the center of Tenochtitlan. Aztecs adapted indigenous religious beliefs. | 45 | |
| 13562910809 | Incan Empire | Incas established an empire by military conquest in modern-day Peru-settled around Lake Titicaca(mid-1200s). Pachacuti expanded the empire by military conquest from Quito to Santiago(2500 miles). Government led by military elite; armies were made up of conquered peoples; forced people into submission by taking hostages. Bureaucrats used a quipu(a variety of cords in different colors and lengths) to keep track of population, taxes, state property, and labor owed to government. Capital: Cuzxo was center of administrative, religious, and ceremonial duties. Waru Waru-agricultural technique combined raising beds with irrigation channels to prevent erosion. Technique allows for both water collection and drainage(caused by flooding). Two roads ran north-south and connected the empire. One went through the mountains, the other ran along the coast. Combined distance of approximately 9,500 miles-used for trade and to disseminate information quickly. This is an example of a communication network and can be compared to system of roads in the Roman Empire. | 46 | |
| 13563061635 | Terrace Farming | Used in the Americas initially by the Mayans(250-900 and 1200-1450)-the terraces were like steps carved out of the side of a mountain, which provided flat surfaces on which to grow crops and to trap rainwater for irrigation. The subsequent increase in crop production allowed the Mayan civilization to expand, and forced Mayans to find more and more creative ways to collect and store water during the dry seasons to prepare for unpredictable summer rains. In the 14th and 15th centuries the Incans settled in the Andes Mountains, which also necessitated terrace farming. Terracing allowed the Incans the opportunity to grow crops in high altitude and mountainous regions. They grew potatoes, maize, beans, and peppers. In Japan terracing or tanda was developed to expand the production of rice sometime between the 14th and 16th centuries. Compare the use of terrace farming in these three civilizations. | 47 | |
| 13563092047 | Development of Pacific Islands | Settlements arose in Easter Island, New Zealand, Tahiti, the Marquesas Islands, and the Hawaiian Islands. Islanders in the Pacific grew yams, sweet potatoes, breadfruit, bananas, coconuts, and taro and domesticated pigs and dogs. Fishponds added to the food supply in the Hawaiian Islands. Owing to the expanse of the Pacific Ocean, trade networks did not develop easily, allowing for only limited contact with other societies. There was some cultural diffusion, as as the spread of sweet potatoes. | 48 | |
| 13563102673 | Sufis | Sufis focused on a personal relationship with Allah rather than a strict interpretation of Islam. They allowed worship of traditional gods, whom they believed were manifestations of Allah. Sufis succeeded in converting people in India, sub-Saharan Africa, and southeastern Asia to their mystic ways from 1000-1500. Sufis hoped that a flexible, tolerant approach to Islam would make it more palatable and intensify its speed. | 49 | |
| 13563110828 | Agricultural Diffusion | Muslim travelers introduced new foods(citrus fruits, rice) and commercial crops(cotton, sugarcane) to sub-Saharan Africa. European crusaders were first introduced to sugarcane and brought the sweetener back to Europe. Sugarcane plantations sprang up in Sicily, Crete, Cyprus, and Rhodes-infused local economy and introduced slave trade to the region because sugar is a labor-intensive crop. | 50 | |
| 13563120956 | Bubonic Plague | Killed a third of European population(about 25 million); disrupted trade. Physical effects of the plague: inflamed lymph nodes(neck, armpit, groin), internal hemorrhaging caused discolored inflammations(buboes); 60-70 percent of those who contracted the disease died, most within days of noticing symptoms. Did not spread to Scandinavia in any appreciable number-cold winters did not foster the spread of pathogens; did not have a negative impact on India. Plague spread from southwestern China(1300) to Europe(1348). Fleas on rats and squirrels transmitted the disease. Probably spread in conjunction with Mongol military campaigns and trade. Population recovered through regeneration within 100 years. | 51 | |
| 13563136466 | Ming Dynasty | Emperor Hongwu established the Ming("brilliant") dynasty, following the Yuan dynasty, in 1368' his immediate goal was to remove all signs of Mongol rule. Hongwu centralized power and established direct rule by the emperor. He reestablished a civil service system based on Confucian values to ensure promotion of scholar bureaucrats on the basis of ability, not favors. Society was based on strict adherence to rules established by the Ming government. Power of the central government was increased through the use of eunuchs(sterile men who could not produce a family to challenge the dynasty) and mandarins(emissaries sent out to enforce government policies). Economic recovery: rebuilt irrigation systems led to agricultural surplus, promoted production of manufactured goods: porcelain, silk, and cotton; demanded tribute from surrounding states. | 52 | |
| 13563153515 | Zheng He | An Islamic eunuch admiral who led seven exploratory voyages for Ming China from 1405-1433, commanding an extensive naval fleet. Traveled to Southeast Asia, Ceylon, India, the Persian Gulf, Arabia, and the East African coast, where he established tributary relationships. Brought porcelain and silk from China; luxury gifts(tributes) he received from the countries he visited. Zheng He's voyages demonstrated China's ability to be a military, political, and economic power in the Indian Ocean. Ming emperors abruptly pulled funds from Zheng He's expeditions because the government was concerned about domestic problems and frontier security. They felt the funds would be better spent on agriculture and protecting themselves from Mongol invasions. They destroyed his nautical charts. Ships fell into disrepair. This began a period of isolationism for China that would last until the 19th century. | 53 | |
| 13563318574 | Renaissance | Humanism: Focus on things of this world, a departure from medieval though and designed to work in conjunction with an urban-based society. Artists such as Donatello and Michelangelo studied muscle structure, and their work accurately reflects the natural form. Architecture mimicked the simple and elegant structures designed by Greco-Roman builders with the addition of the dome. Humanist scholars concentrated on morals, literature, and history based on a deep commitment to Christianity. Renaissance: "Rebirth" of Greco-Roman culture(arts and intellectual pursuits) that lasted from 1300s to 1500s. Reflected the spirit of individualism and encouraged a spirit from religious-based thinking and a focus on things of this world(secularism). | 54 | |
| 13563342340 | Trans-Saharan Trade | Introduction of the camel by Arabs and use of by Arabs and Berbers sped up communication and transportation across the Sahara. Caravans of camels crossed the Sahara in 70-90 days. Kingdoms such as Ghana, Mali, and Songhai in western Africa were important in connecting the Mediterranean basin to sub-Saharan Africa. Arab conquerors established Islam in North African during the 7th and 8th centuries, conquered Ghana in West Africa, and converted leaders of Mali and Songhai. Islamic merchants were an important part of the trans-Saharan trade and later introduced Islam to Mansa Musa in Mali spreading the Dar al-Islam. Gold, slaves, and ivory from the south were exchanged for cloth, horses, salt, and manufactured wares from the north. | 55 | |
| 13563357099 | Trade in the Indian Ocean | Larger ships and improved commercial organization led to an increase in the quantity and quality of trade in the Indian Ocean basin. Important Indian trading ports: Cambay, Calicut, Quilon-way stations for traders from China and Africa. East African city-states traded gold, iron, and ivory. From China, silk and porcelain; from India, pepper. Portugal controlled trade in the Indian Ocean beginning in the 16th century. Trade conducted in stages because monsoons forced mariners to stay in ports for months waiting for favorable winds. Advances in planning: rhythms of monsoons taken into account; larger ships able to go farther away from the coastline; warehouses built to store goods. As a result, commerce flourished. | 56 | |
| 13563375919 | Long-distance Trade in Eastern Hemisphere | Southeast Asia, Africa, and India were all connected by trade. Goods traveled through two primary routes: Silk Roads, established in Han dynasty, were best for transporting light luxury items(silk and precious stones); the sea was used for bulkier items(coral, stone, and building materials). Major trading cities included Hangzhou, Alexandria, Khanbaliq, Kilwa, Constantinople, Quanzhou, Cairo, Melaka, Venice, Cambay, Timbuktu, and Caffa. Trade cities enjoyed tremendous wealth as a result of their status as major trading ports; inhabitans usually did not have to pay taxes. With the exception of Mongol military campaigns and the Black Death, there were no significant interruptions to trade. | 57 | |
| 13563392902 | Porcelain | A delicate, yet durable ceramic made of clay. The Tang had a complete monopoly as the world's only producer and supplier. During the Ming dynasty(1368-1644), a blue and white style was developed. Although it was likely produced during the later Han period, it was during the Tang dynasty that production was mastered and it became a luxury product in high demand in the Islamic world. | 58 | |
| 13563399107 | Woodblock Printing and Moveable Type | Woodblock printing was invented in China, most likely during the Tang period(618-906). A reverse image was carved on a block of wood in order to create an entire printed page. During the Song period(960-1279), moveable type used cast bronze tiles that each had a single character(ideograph) that allowed for the type to be moved. In Song China, moveable type allowed the government to print books to prepare students for the imperial civil service exams. Moveable type made printing cheaper and books-and thus knowledge-more accessible. | 59 | |
| 13563411620 | Gunpowder | Its origin is hard to date, but it is certainly a Chinese invention that was in use during the time of the Tang dynasty(618-906). Initially it was used as an explosive(made from charcoal and saltpeter) in the building of canals and irrigation systems. Beginning in the 1000s, China was experimenting with its use as a weapon, most notably as an early flamethrower and later in catapults to create an explosion. The Song(960-1279)experimented with metal barrels to fire projectiles, the precursor to the earliest canons and guns. Canons were in use in Europe by the early 1300s(commonly known as bombards). By 1258, gunpowder had reached Europe. The Mongols played a key role in diffusing gunpowder technologies to Persia and southwest Asia. Gunpowder played a key role in European exploration and conquest of the New World. | 60 | |
| 13563427145 | Junks | Oceangoing ships built in China during the Song dynasty(960-1279). The ships used a magnetic compass and a stern-mounted rudder; they were equipped with gunpowder-propelled rockets. Zheng He commanded an imperial expedition, a mighty armada of "treasure ships," that sailed from 1405-1433, reaching India, Hormuz on the Persian Gulf, and Somalia on the coast of Africa. Crew: 27,000+ The fleet consisted of giant nine-masted junks-over 400 feet long and 150 feet wide-escorted by dozens of supply ships, water tankers, transports for cavalry horses, and patrol boats. By comparison, the Santa Maria, Columbus's largest ship, was 90 feet by 30 feet, with a crew on 90. Junks helped to intensify and advance Chinese trade. | 61 | |
| 13563443327 | Free Peasant Revolts | China-Northern tribes revolted because they were dissatisfied with Mongol rule. Peasant revolts were followed by famine and floods in the south. This prompted the Red Turban Society to launch a rebellion. This helped pave the way for the fall of the Yuan in 1368. Byzantine Empire-Peasants' revolt protested higher taxes and nobles demanded more grain production. Compare what these free peasant revolts have in common. | 62 |
