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| 10833221536 | Alexander | King of Macedonia in northern Greece. Between 334 and 323 BCE he conquered the Persian Empire, reached the Indus Valley, founded many Greek-style cities, and spread Greek culture across the Middle East | 0 | |
| 10833377246 | Alexandria | City on the Mediterranean coast of Egypt founded by Alexander. It became the capital of the Hellenistic kingdom of the Ptolemies. It contained the famous Library and the Museum, a center for leading scientific and literary figures. Its merchants engaged in trade with areas bordering the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean | 1 | |
| 10833377247 | Cyrus | Founder of the Achaemenid Persian Empire. Between 550 and 530 B.C.E. he conquered Media, Lydia, and Babylon. Revered in the traditions of both Iran and the subject peoples, he employed Persians and Medes in his administration and respected the institutions and beliefs of subject people | 2 | |
| 10833377248 | Darius I | Third ruler of the Persian Empire (r. 521-486 B.C.E.). He crushed the widespread initial resistance to his rule and gave major government posts to Persians rather than to Medes. He established a system of provinces and tribute, began construction of Persepolis, and expanded Persian control in the east (Pakistan) and west (northern Greece) | 3 | |
| 10833377249 | democracy | system of government in which all "citizens" (however defined) have equal political and legal rights, privileges, and protections, as in the Greek city-state of Athens in the fifth and fourth centuries BCE | 4 | |
| 10833377250 | Hellenistic Age | Historians' term for the era, usually dated 323-30 B.C.E., in which Greek culture spread across western Asia and northeastern Africa after the conquests of Alexander the Great. The period ended with the fall of the last major Hellenistic kingdom to Rome, but Greek cultural influence persisted until the spread of Islam in the seventh century C.E. | 5 | |
| 10833377251 | hoplite | a heavily armed Greek infantryman of the Archaic and Classical periods who fought in the close-packed phalanx formation. Militias composed of these soldiers were for centuries superior to all other military forces | 6 | |
| 10833377252 | Peloponnesian War | A protracted (431-404 B.C.E.) and costly conflict between the Athenian and Spartan alliance systems that convulsed most of the Greek world. The war was largely a consequence of Athenian imperialism. Possession of a naval empire allowed Athens to fight a war of attrition, but ultimately Sparta prevailed because of Athenian errors and Persian financial support | 7 | |
| 10833377253 | Pericles | Aristocratic leader who guided the Athenian state through the transformation to full participatory democracy for all male citizens, supervised construction of the Acropolis, and pursued a policy of imperial expansion that led to the Peloponnesian War. He formulated a strategy of attrition but died from the plague early in the war | 8 | |
| 10833377254 | Persepolis | A complex of palaces, reception halls, and treasury buildings erected by the Persian kings Darius I and Xerxes in the Persian homeland. It is believed that the New Year's festival was celebrated here, as well as the coronations, weddings, and funerals of the Persian kings, who were buried in cliff-tombs nearby | 9 | |
| 10833377255 | Persian Wars | Conflicts between Greek city-states and the Persian Empire, ranging from the Ionian Revolt (499-494 B.C.E.) through Darius's punitive expedition that failed at Marathon. (490 BCE) and the defeat of Xerxes' massive invasion of Greece by the Spartan-led Hellenic League (480-479 BCE) | 10 | |
| 10833377256 | polis | The Greek term for a city-state, an urban center and the agricultural territory under its control. It was the characteristic form of political organization in southern and central Greece in the Archaic and Classical periods | 11 | |
| 10833377257 | Ptolemies | The Macedonian dynasty, descended from one of Alexander the Great's officers, that ruled Egypt for three centuries (323-30 B.C.E.). From their magnificent capital at Alexandria on the Mediterranean coast, the Ptolemies largely took over the system created by Egyptian pharaohs to extract the wealth of the land, rewarding Greeks and Hellenized non-Greeks serving in the military and administration | 12 | |
| 10833377258 | Sacrifice | A gift given to a deity, often with the aim of creating a relationship, gaining favor, and obligating the god to provide some benefit to the sacrificer, sometimes in order to sustain the deity and thereby guarantee the continuing vitality of the natural world. | 13 | |
| 10833377259 | satrap | The governor of a province in the Achaemenid Persian Empire, often a relative of the king. He was responsible for protection of the province and for forwarding tribute to the central administration. Those in outlying provinces enjoyed considerable autonomy | 14 | |
| 10833377260 | Socrates | Athenian philosopher (ca. 470-399 B.C.E.) who shifted the emphasis of philosophical investigation from questions of natural science to ethics and human behavior. He attracted young disciples from the elite families but made enemies by revealing the ignorance and pretensions of others, actions that culminated in his trial and execution the the Athenian state | 15 | |
| 10833377261 | Trireme | Greek and Phoenician warship of the fifth and fourth centuries B.C.E. It was sleek and light, powered by 170 oars arranged in three vertical tiers. Manned by skilled sailors, it was capable of short bursts of speed and complex maneuvers. | 16 | |
| 10833377262 | tyrant | The term the Greeks used to describe someone who seized and held power in violation of the normal procedures and traditions of the community. Tyrants appeared in many Greek city-states in the seventh and sixth centuries B.C.E., often taking advantage of the disaffection of the emerging middle class and, by weakening the old elite, unwittingly contributing to the evolution of democracy | 17 | |
| 10833377263 | zoroastrianism | A religion originating in ancient Iran that became the official religion of the Achaemenids. It centered on a single benevolent deity, Ahuramazda, who engaged in a struggle with demonic forces before prevailing and restoring a pristine world. It emphasized truth-telling, purity, and reverence for nature. | 18 | |
| 10881021282 | aqueduct | a conduit, either elevated or underground, that used gravity to carry water from a source to a location-usually a city-that needed it. The Romans built many of these in a period of substantial urbanization | 19 | |
| 11018753358 | Augustus | Honorific name of Octavian, founder of the Roman Principate, the military dictatorship that replaced the failing rule of the Roman Senate. After defeating all rivals, between 31 BCE and 14 CE he laid the groundwork for several centuries of stability and prosperity in the Roman Empire | 20 | |
| 11018753359 | Chang'an | City in the Wei Valley in eastern China. It became the capital of the Zhou kingdom and the Qin and early Han Empires. Its main features were imitated in the cities and towns that sprang up throughout the Han Empire. | 21 | |
| 11018753360 | Constantine | Roman emperor (r. 306-337). After reuniting the Roman Empire, he moved the capital to Constantinople and made Christianity a favored religion | 22 | |
| 11018753361 | equites | In ancient Italy, prosperous landowners second in wealth and status to the senatorial aristocracy. The Roman emperors allied with this group to counterbalance the influence of the old aristocracy and used them to staff the imperial civil service. | 23 | |
| 11018753362 | Gaozu | The throne name of Liu Bang, one of the rebel leaders who brought down the Qin and founded the Han dynasty in 202 B.C.E. | 24 | |
| 11018753363 | Han | A term used to designate (1) the ethnic Chinese people who originated in the Yellow River Valley and spread throughout regions of China suitable for agriculture and (2) the dynasty of emperors who ruled from 202 B.C.E. to 220 C.E. | 25 | |
| 11018753364 | Jesus | A Jew from Galilee in northern Israel who sought to reform Jewish beliefs and practices. He was executed as a revolutionary by the Romans. Hailed as the Messiah and son of God by his followers, he became the central figure in Christianity, a belief system that developed in the centuries after his death | 26 | |
| 11018753365 | patron/client relationship | In ancient Rome, a fundamental social relationship in which the patron—a wealthy and powerful individual—provided legal and economic protection and assistance to clients, men of lesser status and means, and in return the clients supported the political careers and economic interests of their patron. | 27 | |
| 11018753366 | Paul | A Jew from the Greek city of Tarsus in Anatolia, he initially persecuted the followers of Jesus but, after receiving a revelation on the road to Syrian Damascus, became a Christian. Taking advantage of his Hellenized background and Roman citizenship, he traveled throughout Syria-Palestine, Anatolia, and Greece, preaching the new religion and establishing churches. Finding his greatest success among pagans ("gentiles"), he began the process by which Christianity separated from Judaism. | 28 | |
| 11018753367 | pax romana | Literally, "Roman peace," it connoted the stability and prosperity that Roman rule brought to the lands of the Roman Empire in the first two centuries C.E. The movement of people and trade goods along Roman roads and safe seas allowed for the spread of cultural practices, technologies, and religious ideas. | 29 | |
| 11018753368 | Principate | A term used to characterize Roman government in the first three centuries CE, based on the ambiguous title princeps ("first citizen") adopted by Augustus to conceal his military dictatorship | 30 | |
| 11018753369 | Qin | A people and state in the Wei River Valley of eastern China that conquered rival states and created the first Chinese empire (221-206 B.C.E.). The ruler, Shi Huangdi, standardized many features of Chinese society and ruthlessly marshaled subjects for military and construction projects, engendering hostility that led to the fall of his dynasty shortly after his death | 31 | |
| 11018753370 | Republic | The period from 507 to 31 B.C.E., during which Rome was largely governed by the aristocratic Roman Senate. | 32 | |
| 11018753371 | Romanization | The process by which the Latin language and Roman culture became dominant in the western provinces. Indigenous people in the provinces often chose this route because of the political and economic advantages that it brought, as well as the allure of Roman success | 33 | |
| 11018753372 | Senate | A council whose members were the heads of wealthy, landowning families. Originally an advisory body to the early kings, in the era of the Roman Republic it effectively governed the Roman state and the growing empire. Under Senate leadership, Rome conquered an empire of unprecedented extent in the lands surrounding the Mediterranean Sea. | 34 | |
| 11018753373 | Shi Huangdi | Founder of the short-lived Qin dynasty and creator of the Chinese Empire (r. 221-210 B.C.E.). He is remembered for his ruthless conquests of rival states, standardization of practices, and forcible organization of labor for military and engineering tasks. His tomb, with its army of life-size terracotta soldiers, has been partially excavated | 35 | |
| 11018753374 | Sima Qian | Chief astrologer for the Han dynasty emperor Wu. He composed a monumental history of China from its legendary origins to his own time and is regarded as the Chinese "father of history" | 36 | |
| 11018753375 | Third-Century Crisis | Historians' term for the political, military, and economic turmoil that beset the Roman Empire during much of the third century C.E.: frequent changes of ruler, civil wars, barbarian invasions, decline of urban centers, and near-destruction of long-distance commerce and the monetary economy. After 284 C.E. Diocletian restored order by making fundamental changes. | 37 | |
| 11018753376 | Xiongnu | A confederation of nomadic peoples living beyond the northwest frontier of ancient China. Chinese rulers tried a variety of defenses and stratagems to ward off these 'barbarians,' as they called them, and dispersed them in the first century CE | 38 | |
| 11102049158 | Ashoka | Third ruler of the Mauryan Empire in India (r. 273-232 BCE). He converted to Buddhism and broadcast his precepts on inscribed stones and pillars, the earliest surviving Indian writing | 39 | |
| 11102049159 | Bhagavad-Gita | The most important work of Indian sacred literature, a dialogue between the great warrior Arjuna and the god Krishna on duty and the fate of the spirit | 40 | |
| 11102049160 | Borobodur | A massive stone monument on the Indonesian island of Java, erected by the Sailendra kings around 800 CE. The winding ascent through ten levels, decorated with rich relief carving, is a Buddhist allegory for the progressive stages of enlightenment. | 41 | |
| 11102049161 | Buddha | An Indian prince named Siddhartha Gautama who renounced his wealth and social position to search for truth. After becoming enlightened, he enunciated the principles of Buddhism, which evolved and spread throughout INdia and to Southeast, East, and Central Asia. | 42 | |
| 11102049162 | Funan | An early complex society in Southeast Asia between the first and sixth centuries CE. Centered in the rich rice growing region of southern Vietnam, it controlled the passage of trade across the Malaysian isthmus. | 43 | |
| 11102049163 | Gupta Empire | A powerful Indian state based, like its Mauryan predecessor, on a capital at Pataliputra in the Ganges Valley. It controlled most of the INdian subcontinent through a combination of military force and its prestige as a center of sophisticated culture. | 44 | |
| 11102049164 | Hinduism | A general term for a wide variety of beliefs and ritual practices that have developed in the Indian subcontinent since antiquity. It has roots in ancient Vedic and south Indian religious concepts and practices. It spread along the trade routes to Southeast Asia. | 45 | |
| 11102049165 | karma | In Indian tradition, the residue of deeds performed in past and present lives that adheres to a "spirit" and determines what form it will assume in its next life cycle. The doctrines of this idea and reincarnation was used by the elite in ancient India to encourage people to accept their social position and do their duty | 46 | |
| 11102049166 | Mahabharata | A vast epic chronicling the events leading up to a cataclysmic battle between related kinship groups in early India. It includes the Bhagavad-Gita | 47 | |
| 11102049167 | Mahayana Buddhism | "Great Vehicle" branch of Buddhism followed in China, Japan, and Central Asia. The focus is on reverence for Buddha and for bodhisattvas, enlightened people who have postponed nirvana to help others attain enlightenment | 48 | |
| 11102049168 | Mauryan Empire | The first state to unify most of the Indian subcontinent. It was founded by Chandragupta in 324 BCE and survived until 184 BCE. From its capital at Pataliputra in the Ganges Valley it grew wealthy from taxes on agriculture, iron mining, and control of trade routes | 49 | |
| 11102049169 | moksha | The Hindu concept of the spirit's "liberation" from the endless cycle of rebirths. There are various avenues - such as physical discipline, mediation, and acts of devotion to the gods - by which the spirit can distance itself from desire for the things of this world and be merged with the divine force that animates the universe | 50 | |
| 11102049170 | monsoon | Seasonal winds of the Indian Ocean caused by the differences in temperature between the rapidly heating and cooling landmasses of Africa and Asia and the slowly changing ocean waters. These strong and predictable winds have long been ridden across the open sea by sailors, and the large amounts of rainfall that they deposit on parts of India, Southeast Asia, and China allow for the cultivation of several crops a year | 51 | |
| 11102049171 | Srivijaya | A state based on the Indonesian island of Sumatra between the seventh and eleventh centuries CE. It amassed wealth and power by a combination of selective adaptation of Indian technologies and concepts, control of the lucrative trade routes between India and China, and skillful showmanship and diplomacy in holding together a disparate realm of inland and coastal territories | 52 | |
| 11102049172 | Tamil kingdoms | The kingdoms of southern India, inhabited primarily by speakers of Dravidian languages, which developed in partial isolation, and somewhat differently, from the Arya north. The produced epics, poetry, and performance arts. Element of their religious beliefs were merged in the Hindu synthesis. | 53 | |
| 11102049173 | theater-state | HIstorians' term for a state that acquires prestige and power by developing attractive cultural forms and staging elaborate public ceremonies (as well as redistributing valuable resources) to attract and bind subjects to the center. Examples include the Gupta Empire in India and Srivijaya in Southeast Asia | 54 | |
| 11102049177 | Theravada Buddhism | 55 | ||
| 11102049174 | varna | Two categories of social identity of great importance in Indian history. Included are the four major social divisions: the Brahmin priest class, the Kshatriya warrior/administrator class, the Vaishya merchant/farmer class, and the Shudra laborer class. Within each of these are many jati, regional groups of people who have a common occupational sphere and who marry, eat, and generally interact with other members of their group | 56 | |
| 11102049175 | Vedas | Early Indian sacred "knowledge" - the literal meaning of the term - long preserved and communicated orally by Brahmin priests and eventually written down. These religious texts, including the thousand poetic hymns to various deities contained in the Rig Veda, are our main source of information about the Vedic period (ca. 1500-500 BCE) | 57 | |
| 11102058713 | Anasazi | Important culture of what is now the southwest United States (700-1300 CE). Centered on Chaco Canyon in New Mexico and Mesa Verde in Colorado, they built multistory residences and worshiped in subterranean buildings called kivas | 58 | |
| 11102058714 | ayllu | Andean lineage group or kin-based community | 59 | |
| 11102058715 | Chavin | The first major urban civilization in South America (900-250 BCE). Its capital was located high in the Andes Mountains of Peru. It became politically and economically dominant in a densely populated region that included two distinct ecological zones, the Peruvian coastal plain and the Andean foothills | 60 | |
| 11102058716 | chiefdom | Form of political organization with rule by a hereditary leader who held power over a collection of villages and towns. Less powerful than kingdoms and empires, chiefdoms were based on gift giving and commercial links | 61 | |
| 11102058717 | Chimu | A powerful civilization, also called Kingdom of Chimor, that developed on the northern coast of Peru from about 1200 to its conquest by an expanding Inka empire in the 1470s. Its capital city was Chan Chan | 62 | |
| 11102058718 | chinampas | Raised fields constructed along lake shores in Mesoamerica to increase agricultural yields | 63 | |
| 11102058719 | llama | A hoofed animal indigenous to the Andes Mountains in South America. It was the only domesticated beast of burden in the Americas before the arrival of Europeans. It provided meat and wool. Their use to transport goods made possible specialized production and trade among people living in different ecological zones and fostered the integration of these zones by Chavin and later Andean states | 64 | |
| 11102058720 | Maya | A Mesoamerican civilization concentrated in Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula and in Guatemala and Honduras but never unified into a single empire. Major contributions were in mathematics, astronomy, and development of the calendar. | 65 | |
| 11102058721 | mita | Andean labor system based on shared obligations to help kinsmen and work on behalf of rulers or religious organizations | 66 | |
| 11102058722 | Moche | Civilization of north coast of Peru (200-700 CE). An important Andean civilization that built from extensive irrigation networks as well as impressive urban centers dominated by brick temples | 67 | |
| 11102058723 | Olmec | The first Mesoamerican civilization. Between ca. 1200 and 400 BCE, these people of central Mexico created a vibrant civilization that included intensive agriculture, wide-ranging trade, ceremonial centers, and monumental construction. They had great cultural influence on later Mesoamerican societies, passing on artistic styles, religious imagery, sophisticated astronomical observation for the construction of calendars, and a ritual ball game. | 68 | |
| 11102058724 | Teotihuacan | A powerful city-state in central Mexico (100-750 CE). Its population was more than 125,000 at its peak in 450 CE | 69 | |
| 11102058725 | Tiwanaku | Name of the capital city and empire centered on the region near Lake Titicaca in modern Bolivia (500-1000 CE) | 70 | |
| 11102058726 | Toltecs | Powerful postclassic state in central Mexico (900-1175 CE) that influenced much of Mesoamerica. Aztecs later claimed ties to this civilization | 71 | |
| 11102058727 | Wari | Andean civilization culturally linked to Tiwanaku, perhaps beginning as a colony of Tiwanaku | 72 | |
| 11165777008 | Anasazi | Important culture of what is now the southwest United States (700-1300 CE). Centered on Chaco Canyon in New Mexico and Mesa Verde in Colorado, they built multistory residences and worshiped in subterranean buildings called kivas | 73 | |
| 11165777009 | ayllu | Andean lineage group or kin-based community | 74 | |
| 11165777010 | Chavin | The first major urban civilization in South America (900-250 BCE). Its capital was located high in the Andes Mountains of Peru. It became politically and economically dominant in a densely populated region that included two distinct ecological zones, the Peruvian coastal plain and the Andean foothills | 75 | |
| 11165777011 | chiefdom | Form of political organization with rule by a hereditary leader who held power over a collection of villages and towns. Less powerful than kingdoms and empires, chiefdoms were based on gift giving and commercial links | 76 | |
| 11165777012 | Chimu | A powerful civilization, also called Kingdom of Chimor, that developed on the northern coast of Peru from about 1200 to its conquest by an expanding Inka empire in the 1470s. Its capital city was Chan Chan | 77 | |
| 11165777013 | chinampas | Raised fields constructed along lake shores in Mesoamerica to increase agricultural yields | 78 | |
| 11165777014 | llama | A hoofed animal indigenous to the Andes Mountains in South America. It was the only domesticated beast of burden in the Americas before the arrival of Europeans. It provided meat and wool. Their use to transport goods made possible specialized production and trade among people living in different ecological zones and fostered the integration of these zones by Chavin and later Andean states | 79 | |
| 11165777015 | Maya | A Mesoamerican civilization concentrated in Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula and in Guatemala and Honduras but never unified into a single empire. Major contributions were in mathematics, astronomy, and development of the calendar. | 80 | |
| 11165777016 | mita | Andean labor system based on shared obligations to help kinsmen and work on behalf of rulers or religious organizations | 81 | |
| 11165777017 | Moche | Civilization of north coast of Peru (200-700 CE). An important Andean civilization that built from extensive irrigation networks as well as impressive urban centers dominated by brick temples | 82 | |
| 11165777018 | Olmec | The first Mesoamerican civilization. Between ca. 1200 and 400 BCE, these people of central Mexico created a vibrant civilization that included intensive agriculture, wide-ranging trade, ceremonial centers, and monumental construction. They had great cultural influence on later Mesoamerican societies, passing on artistic styles, religious imagery, sophisticated astronomical observation for the construction of calendars, and a ritual ball game. | 83 | |
| 11165777019 | Teotihuacan | A powerful city-state in central Mexico (100-750 CE). Its population was more than 125,000 at its peak in 450 CE | 84 | |
| 11165777020 | Tiwanaku | Name of the capital city and empire centered on the region near Lake Titicaca in modern Bolivia (500-1000 CE) | 85 | |
| 11165777021 | Toltecs | Powerful postclassic state in central Mexico (900-1175 CE) that influenced much of Mesoamerica. Aztecs later claimed ties to this civilization | 86 | |
| 11165777022 | Wari | Andean civilization culturally linked to Tiwanaku, perhaps beginning as a colony of Tiwanaku | 87 |
