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11300273045ConservationAllowing the use of resources in a responsible manner0
11300273046PreservationSetting aside areas and protecting them from human activities1
11300273047Keystone speciesSpecies that serve as early warnings that an ecosystem is being damaged (e.g. trout)2
11300273048Characteristics of endangered speciesSmall range, large territory, or live on an island3
11300273049Endangered speciesA group of organisms in danger of becoming extinct if the situation is not improved4
11300273050Invasive/Alien/Exotic speciesNon-native species to an area; often thrive and disrupt the ecosystem balance5
11300273051Parts of the hydrologic cycle1) Evaporation, Transpiration 2) Condensation 3) Precipitation 4) Runoff, Infiltration6
11300273052Nitrogen fixingBecause atmospheric N2 cannot be used directly by plants it must first be converted into ammonia (NH3) by bacteria (rhizobium or cyanobacteria)7
11300273053AmmonificationNitrogen is converted into ammonia by ammonifying bacteria; may occur when nitrogen in organic wastes in the soil are converted to ammonia or when atmospheric nitrogen (N2) is converted to NH38
11300273054NitrificationAmmonia (NH3) is converted to nitrate ions (NO3)-9
11300273055AssimilationInorganic N2 is converted into organic molecules such as DNA/amino acids & proteins - plants assimilate nitrogen as NH4+ or NO3- through their roots; animals (herbivores) assimilate organic nitrogen compounds by eating plants.10
11300273056DenitrificationBacteria convert nitrate (NO3)- and nitrite (NO2)- back into N2 gas; bacteria convert ammonia (NH3) back into N2 or N2O; typically accomplished by anaerobic bacteria11
11300273057Phosphorus does not circulate as easily as nitrogen because...It does not exist as a gas, but is released by weathering of phosphate (PO4)3- rocks; this is a sedimentary cycle, never found as a gas12
11300273058How is excess phosphorus added to aquatic ecosystems?Runoff of animal wastes, fertilizer, discharge of sewage. Limiting factor in freshwater ecosystems; excess P leads to eutrophication13
11300273059PhotosynthesisPlants convert atmospheric carbon (CO2) into complex carbohydrates (glucose). Energy is consumed and oxygen is released as a waste product14
11300273060Aerobic respirationO2-consuming producers, consumers & decomposers15
11300273061Anaerobic respirationBreak down of carbohydrates without oxygen - products are methane, alcohols, and other organics.16
11300273062TranspirationProcess where water is absorbed by plant roots, moves up through plants, passes through pores (stomata) in leaves or other parts, evaporates into atmosphere as water vapor.17
11300273063Largest reservoirs of Carbon?Carbonate rocks first, oceans second.18
11300273064SustainabilityThe ability to meet the current needs of humanity without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs.19
11300273065Tragedy of the Commons(1968 paper by ecologist Garret Hardin) "Freedom to breed" is bringing ruin to all. Global commons such as atmosphere & oceans are used by all and owned by none. When no individual has ownership, no one takes responsibility. Examples: overfishing in the oceans, over pumping of the Ogallala Aquifer20
11300273066Natural selectionOrganisms that possess favorable adaptations survive and pass them onto the next generation.21
11300273067Energy flow in food webs or chains, through trophic systemsonly 10% of the usable energy is transferred because usable energy lost as heat (second law); not all biomass is digested and absorbed; predators expend energy to catch prey; the 10% value is an average value22
11300273068Biotic and abioticliving and nonliving components of an ecosystem23
11300273069Competitiona type of population interaction, usually over a limited resource - may be intraspecific or interspecific24
11300273070Producer/Autotrophphotosynthetic or chemosynthetic life; Chemotroph - organism undergoing chemosynthesis - usually carried out by sulfur bacteria in aphotic zones in the ocean (deep ocean vents, etc.)25
11300273071Primary successiondevelopment of communities in a lifeless area not previously inhabited by life or those in which the soil profile is totally destroyed (lava flows); no soil substrate present; begins with lichen action26
11300273072Secondary successionLife progresses where soil remains (clear-cut forest, fire, disturbed areas)27
11300273073MutualismSymbiotic relationship where both partners benefit and both participate28
11300273074CommensalismSymbiotic relationship where one partner benefits & other is unaffected or may benefit29
11300273075Parasitismrelationship in which one partner obtains nutrients at the expense of the host30
11300273076BiomeLarge distinct terrestrial region having similar climate, soil, plants & animals; terrestrial biomes determining factors are temperature and precipitation.31
11300273077Carrying capacitythe number of individuals (size of the population) that can be sustained in an area (supported by available resources in the environment).32
11300273078R strategistreproduce early in life; many small unprotected offspring; tend to be generalists, short lifespan33
11300273079K strategistreproduce late in life; few offspring; care for offspring; tend to be specialists, longer lifespan34
11300273080Positive feedbackwhen a change in some condition triggers a response that intensifies the changing condition (warmer Earth - snow melts - less sunlight is reflected & more is absorbed, therefore warmer Earth)35
11300273081Negative feedbackwhen a changing in some condition triggers a response that counteracts the changed condition (warmer Earth - more ocean evaporation - more stratus clouds - less sunlight reaches the ground - therefore cooler Earth)36
11300273082Malthussaid human population increases exponentially, while food supplies increase arithmetically; factors that keep the population in check include war, famine & disease37
11300273083Doubling timerule of 70; 70 divided by the percent growth rate38
11300273084Replacement level fertilitythe number of children a couple must have to replace themselves (2.1 developed, 2.7 developing); biotic potential; total fertility rate39
11300273085World Population U.S. PopulationWP: about 6.8 billion USP: about 310 million40
11300273086Preindustrial stagePreindustrial stage41
11300273087Transitional stage(demographic transition) death rate lower, better health care, population grows fast42
11300273088Industrial stage(demographic transition) decline in birth rate, population growth slows43
11300273089Postindustrial stage(demographic transition) low birth & death rates44
11300273090Age structure diagramsbroad base = rapid growth; narrow base = negative growth; uniform shape = zero growth; Major Age Cohorts pre-reproductives, reproductives, post-reproductives45
11300273091First and second most populated countries 48.1) China 2) India46
11300273092Most important thing affecting population growthLow status of women47
11300273093Ways to decrease birth rateFamily planning, contraception, economic rewards and penalties48
11300273094True cost / External costsHarmful environmental side effects that are not reflected in a product's price49
11300273095CogenerationUsing waste heat to make electricity50
11300273096Electricity generated by fossil fuels, biomass, or nuclear powerheat is produced which creates steam steam turns a turbine the mechanical energy from the turbine is converted to electrical energy in a generator and that energy is transmitted to homes through power lines51
11300273097Hydroelectric powerpotential energy of stored water is used to turn a turbine the mechanical energy from the turbine is converted to electrical energy in a generator and that energy is transmitted to homes through power lines52
11300273098Thermal gradientspontaneous flow of heat from warmer to cooler bodies53
11300273099Ionizing radiationenough energy to dislodge electrons from atoms, forming ions; capable of causing cancer (gamma, Xrays, UV)54
11300273100High quality energyorganized & concentrated; can perform useful work (fossil fuel & nuclear)55
11300273101Low quality energydisorganized, dispersed (heat in ocean or air wind, solar)56
11300273102First law of Thermodynamicsenergy is neither created nor destroyed, but may be converted from one form to another (Law of Conservation of Energy)57
11300273103Second law of Thermodynamicswhen energy is changed from one form to another, some useful energy is always degraded into lower quality energy, usually heat58
11300273104Best solutions to energy shortageconservation, increase efficiency, explore alternative energy options59
11300273105Alternate energy sourceswind, solar, waves, biomass, geothermal, fuel cells60
11300273106Natural radioactive decayunstable radioisotopes decay releasing gamma rays, alpha particles, and beta particles61
11300273107Half-lifethe time it takes for 1/2 the mass of a radioisotope to decay62
11300273108Estimate of how long a radioactive isotope must be stored until it decays to a safe levelapproximately 10 half-lives63
11300273109Nuclear Fissionnuclei of isotopes split apart when struck by neutrons64
11300273110Nuclear Fusiontwo isotopes of light elements (H) forced together at high temperatures till they fuse to form a heavier nucleus (He). Process is expensive; break-even point not reached yet; D + D He or D + T He65
11300273111Mass deficitnot all matter is converted into matter in a fusion reaction - some (the mass deficit) is converted into energy. E = mc2 . Explains the energy released in a fusion reaction.66
11300273112Major parts of a nuclear reactorcore, control rods, steam generator, turbine, containment building67
11300273113Most serious nuclear accidentsChernobyl, Ukraine (1986) and Three Mile Island, PA (1979)68
11300273114Petroleum formationmicroscopic aquatic organisms in sediments converted by heat and pressure into a mixture of hydrocarbons (animal remains)69
11300273115Pros of petroleumrelatively cheap, easily transported, high-quality energy70
11300273116Cons of petroleumReserves will be depleted soon; pollution during drilling, transport, and refining; burning makes CO271
11300273117Steps in coal formationpear, lignite, bituminous, anthracite72
11300273118Major insecticide groups (and examples)chlorinated hydrocarbons (DDT); organophosphates (malathion); carbamates (aldicarb)73
11300273119Pesticide prossaves lives from insect-transmitted disease, increases food supply, increases profits for farmers74
11300273120Pesticide consgenetic resistance, ecosystem imbalance, pesticide treadmill, persistence, bioaccumulation, biological magnification75
11300273121Natural pest controlbetter agricultural practices, genetically resistant plants, natural enemies, biopesticides, sex attractants76
11300273122In natural ecosystems, methods which control 50 - 90% of pestspredators, diseases, parasites77
11300273123Particulate matterSource: burning fossil fuels and diesel exhaust Effect: reduces visibility & respiratory irritation Reduction: filtering, electrostatic precipitators, alternative energy)78
11300273124Nitrogen OxidesSource: ~50% from transportation (exhaust), ~50% from industry Effects: acidification of lakes, respiratory irritation, leads to photochemical smog & ozone formation Equation for acid formation: NO + O2 NO2 + H2O HNO3 Reduction: selective catalytic reduction unit, more efficient combustion processes like FBC (fluidized bed combustion), lower combustion temperatures, find alternatives to fossil fuels79
11300273125Sulfur OxidesSource: coal burning Effects: acid deposition, respiratory irritation, damages plants Equation for acid formation: SO2 + O2 = SO3 + H2O = H2SO4 Reduction: scrubbers, burn low sulfur fuel)80
11300273126Carbon OxidesSource: auto exhaust, incomplete combustion Effects: CO binds to hemoglobin, reducing blood's ability to carry O2; CO2 contributes to global warming Reduction: catalytic converter, emissions testing, oxygenated fuel, mass transit, increase efficiencies, find alternatives to fossil fuels81
11300273127OzoneFormation: secondary pollutant, NO2 + uv = NO + O* O* + O2 = O3, with VOCs (volatile organic compounds) Effects: respiratory irritant, plant damage Reduction: reduce NO and VOC emissions Tropospheric ozone is BAD, stratospheric ozone is GOOD82
11300273128Radonnaturally occurring colorless, odorless, radioactive gas, found in some types of soil and rock, can seep into homes and buildings, formed from the decay of uranium (U), causes cancer and is a problem in the Reading Prong area of PA. Radon decays to Polonium (Po), which is a solid. Po particles sit in lung tissue and are alpha (α) emitters. This leads to lung cancer.83
11300273129Photochemical smogformed by chemical reactions involving sunlight (NO, VOC, O*); associated with automobile traffic84
11300273130Acid depositioncaused by sulfuric and nitric acids (H2SO4, HNO3), resulting in lowered pH of surface waters, soil acidification and destruction of building materials85
11300273131Greenhouse gasesExamples: H2O, CO2, O3, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), methane (CH4). Effect: they trap outgoing infrared (IR, heat) energy, causing Earth to warm86
11300273132Effects of global warmingrising sea level (thermal expansion), extreme weather, drought, famine, extinctions87
11300273133Stratospheric ozone depletioncaused by ozone-depleting chemicals (ODCs) such as CFCs, methyl chloroform or trichloromethane (CHCl3), carbon tetrachloride (CCl4), halon (haloalkanes), methyl bromide (CH3Br)— all of which attack stratospheric ozone. The Cl or Br atoms "attack" the ozone molecules and cause the thinning of this layer. Global Agreement to decrease ODC - Montreal Protocol (1987)88
11300273134Effects of ozone depletionincreased UV light that results in skin cancer, cataracts, decreased plant growth (inhibits photosynthesis, decline in Antarctic and Arctic phytoplankton population), impaired immune systems89
11300273135Primary air pollutantsproduced by humans & nature (CO,CO2,SOx,NOx, hydrocarbons, particulates)90
11300273136Secondary air pollutantsproduced as a result of reactions that primary air pollutants undergo (include photochemical pollutants O3, PAN and NO2, and acids such as H2SO4 and HNO3)91
11300273137Sources of merucryburning coal (25% of atmospheric deposition), compact fluorescent bulbs92
11300273138Major source of sulfurcoal-burning power plants93
11300273139Point vs. non-point sourcesPoint, from specific location such as a pipe. Non-point, from over an area such as runoff94
11300273140Chlorinegood= disinfection of water; bad = forms trihalomethanes when organics are present in the water; many systems now use chloramines to treat waste water before it is discharged. Alternatives to chlorine disinfection - ozone95
11300273141Fecal coliform/Enterococcus bacteriaindicator of sewage contamination ; found in the intestines of all warm blooded mammals (coliform bacteria)96
11300273142BODbiological oxygen demand, amount of dissolved oxygen needed by aerobic decomposers to break down organic materials in water97
11300273143Eutrophicationmay result in rapid algal growth caused by an excess of nitrates and phosphates in water98
11300273144Hypoxiawhen aquatic plants die, the BOD rises as aerobic decomposers break down the plants, the DO (dissolved O2) drops & the water cannot support life; very low DO levels; dead zone in the Gulf of Mexico99
11300273850Anoxicno DO (dissolved O2) in the water100
11300273851Surface miningcheaper and can remove more minerals; less hazardous to workers101
11300273852Orea rock that contains a large enough concentration of a mineral making it profitable to mine102
11300273853Humusorganic, dark material remaining after decomposition by microorganisms103
11300273854Leachingremoval of dissolved materials from soil by water moving downwards104
11300273855Illuviationdeposit of leached material in lower soil layers (B horizon)105
11300273856LoamPerfect agricultural soil with optimal portions of sand, silt, clay (40%, 40%, 20%)106
11300273857Soil profile, horizons in orderO, A, E, B, C, R107
11300273858Organic fertilizerslow-acting & long-lasting because the organic remains need time to be decomposed108
11300273859Salinization of soilin arid regions, water evaporates leaving salts behind109
11300273860Volcano and Earthquake occurrenceat plate boundaries (divergent= spreading, mid-ocean ridges) (convergent= trenches) (transform= sliding, San Andreas)110
11300273861Monoculturecultivation of a single crop, usually in a large area111
11300273862Foodwheat, rice and corn provide more than ½ of the calories in the food consumed by the world's people112
11300273863LD50The amount of a chemical that kills 50% of the animals in a test population withing 14 days of the initial dose113
11300273864Threshold doseThe maximum dose that has no measurable effect on a given population114
11300273865Percent water on earth by type97.5% seawater, 2.5% freshwater115
11300273866AquifierAny water bearing layer in the ground; confined or artesian, unconfined or water table116
11300273867SubsidenceLand sinks as result of over pumping an aquifer117
11300273868Cone of depressionlowering of the water table around a pumping well118
11300273869Salt water introsionnear the coast, over-pumping of groundwater causes saltwater to move into the aquifer119
11300273870Ways to conserve wateragriculture = drip/trickle irrigation; industry = recycling; home = use gray water, repair leaks, low flow fixtures. reclaimed water for agriculture and golf courses120
11300273871Hazardous Waste (as defined by RCRA) - Mutagen, Teratogen, Carcinogen(in order) causes hereditary changes through mutations; causes fetus deformities; causes cancer121
11300273872Minamata Bay disease(1932 - 1968, Japan) Physical and mental impairments caused by methylmercury poisoning122
11300273873Love Canal, NY(1950s +) Chemicals buried in old canal; schools and homes built over it; caused birth defects and cancer123
11300273874Main component of municipal solid waste (MSW)Paper, most is landfilled124
11300273875Sanitary landfill problems and solutionsproblem = leachate; solution = liner with collection system problem = methane gas; solution = collect gas and burn problem = volume of garbage; solution = compact and reduce125
11300273876Incineration advantagesvolume of waste reduced by 90%, and waste heat can be used126
11300273877Incineration disadvantagestoxic emissions (polyvinyl chloride—dioxin), scrubbers & electrostatic precipitators needed, ash disposal (contains heavy metals)127
11300273878Best way to solve waste problemReduce the amounts of waste at the source (source reduction128
11300273879ENSOEl Nino Southern Oscillation, see-sawing of air pressure over the S. Pacific129
11300273880During an El Nino yeartrade winds weaken n& warm water sloshed back to SA130
11300273881During a non El Nino yeareasterly trade winds and ocean currents pool warm water in the western Pacific, allowing upwelling of nutrient rich water off the west coast of South America131
11300273882Effects of El Ninoupwelling decreases disrupting food chains; N U.S. has mild winters, SW U.S. has increased rainfall, less Atlantic hurricanes132
11300273883Temperature Inversionlayer of dense, cool air trapped under a layer of warm dense air, pollution in trapped layer may build to harmful levels. Frequent in Los Angeles, California and Mexico City, Mexico.133
11300273884Forest Fires: TypesSurface, Crown, Ground (in order) usually burn only under growth and leaf litter on forest floor; hot fires, may start on ground but eventually leap from treetop to treetop; go underground, may smolder for days or weeks, difficult to detect and extinguish, i.e. peat bogs.134
11300273885Surface Mining Control & Reclamation Act (1977)requires coal strip mines to reclaim the land135
11300273886Madrid Protocol(1991) Suspension of mineral exploration (mining) for 50 years in Antarctica136
11300273887Safe Drinking Water Act (SWDA, 1974)set maximum contaminant levels for pollutants in drinking water that may have adverse effects on human health137
11300273888Clean Water Act (CWA, 1974)set maximum permissible amounts of water pollutants that can be discharged into waterways; aims to make surface waters swimmable and fishable138
11300273889Ocean Dumping Ban Act(1988) bans ocean dumping of sewage sludge and industrial waste in the ocean139
11300273890Clean Air Act (1970)Set emission standards for cars and limits for release of air pollutants140
11300273891Kyoto Protocol (2005)controlling global warming by setting greenhouse gas emissions targets for developed countries141
11300273892Montreal Protocol (1987)Montreal Protocol (1987)142
11300273893Resource Conservation & Recovery Act (RCRA) (1976)Controls hazardous waste with a cradle-to-grave system143
11300273894Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, & Liability Act (CERCLA) (1980)Superfund, designed to identify and clean up abandoned hazardous waste dump sites144
11300273895Nuclear Waste Policy Act (1982)US government must develop a high level nuclear waste site (Yucca Mtn)145
11300273896Food Quality Protection Act (1996)set pesticide limits in food, & all active and inactive ingredients must be screened for estrogenic/endocrine effects146
11300273897Endangered Species Act (1973)identifies threatened and endangered species in the US, and puts their protection ahead of economic considerations147
11300273898Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (1973)Lists species that cannot be commercially traded as live specimens or wildlife products148
11300273899Magnuson-Stevens Act (1976)Management of marine fisheries149
11300273900Healthy Forest Initiative (2003)thin overstocked stands, clear away vegetation and trees to create shaded fuel breaks, provide funding and guidance to reduce or eliminate hazardous fuels in national forests, improve forest fire fighting, and research new methods to halt destructive insects150
11300273901National Environmental Policy Act (1969)Environmental Impact Statements must be done before any project affecting federal lands can be started151
11300273902Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (2004)Seeks to protect human health from the 12 most toxic chemicals (includes 8 chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides / DDT can be used for malaria control)152

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