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| 177445432 | Iron Age | stage many societies of Eastern Hemisphere entering by early 1st millennium; used iron over bronze b/c 1 metal rather than alloy & many potential sources of iron ore but iron has to be heated to a higher temp than bronze & hardness depends on amount of carbon added during forging process - however iron tools had harder, sharper edges | 0 | |
| 177445433 | Hittites | speakers of Indo-European language; foremost power in Anatolia from 1700 - 1200 B.C.E.; capital Hattusha (near Ankara in central Turkey); deployed horse-drawn war chariots; use copper, silver, iron for international commerce; 1st to develop technique for making iron tools/weapons; tried to keep prep methods (heat until soft, pound to remove impurities, plunged into cold water to harden) secret; adapted cuneiform | 1 | |
| 177647959 | Akhenaten | Amenhotep IV; 1353 - 1335 B.C.E.; "beneficial to Aten" (disk of sun) - believed Aten supreme deity; closed temples of other gods, challenging chief god Amon; invented monotheism (?) might have been trying to reassert superiority of king over priests & renew belief in king's divinity - Aten worship confined to royal family; built new capital at Amarna 1/2way btwn Memphis & Thebes; transplanted Egyptians to construct site & serve elite; artists created new style: king, wife Nefertiti, daughters depicted in fluid, natural poses w/ elongated heads & limbs & swelling bellies; after death: temples reopened, Amon reinstated as chief god, capital returned to Thebes, priests more powerful | 2 | |
| 177647960 | Ramesses II | Ramesses the Great; ruled for 60 yrs (1290 - 1224 B.C.E.); monumental buildings; may have fathered more than 100 kids; since 1990 excavating network of more than 100 corridors & chambers carved into hillside in Valley of Kings where son buried | 3 | |
| 177647961 | Mycenae | king of Agamemnon in Iliad & Odyssey by Homer in southern Greece; 1876: Schliemann discovered circle of graves at base of deep, rectangular shafts at Mycenae | 4 | |
| 177647962 | shaft graves | contain bodies & filled w/ gold jewelry & ornaments, weapons, utensils | 5 | |
| 177647963 | Linear B | script on over 4,000 baked clay tablets that provides info about Mycenaean life; like Linear A, uses pictorial signs to represent syllables; early form of Greek | 6 | |
| 177647964 | Neo-Assyrian Empire | 911 - 612 B.C.E.; Assyrians 1st to rule over far lands & diverse ppl; homeland in northern Mesopotamia - hilly, temperate, greater rainfall, more exposed to raiders from mountains to east & north & from arid plains to west; peasant farmers provided soldiers for revival of Assyrian power in 9th cent. B.C.E.; campaigns westward across steppe & desert as far as Mediterranean, north into mountains Urartu (Armenia), east across Zagros range into Iranian Plateau, south along Tigris River to Babylonia - largely followed most important western Asian trade routes, provided booty, prospect of tribute & taxes, secured access to iron & silver & brought control of international commerce; defeated Elam (south Iran), Urartu, Babylon, Egypt; at peak: stretched from Anatolia, Syria-Palestine, Egypt in west, across Armenia & Mesopotamia to western Iran | 7 | |
| 177709918 | mass deportation | forcibly uprooting entire communities & resettling them elsewhere; broke spirit of rebels; used in ancient Middle East (Sumer, Babylon, Urartu, Egypt, Hittite Empire); relocated over 1 mill ppl (might be 4 mill); shifted human resources from periphery to venter; control tight at center; provincial officials oversaw payment of tribute & taxes, maintained law & order, raised troops, undertook public works, provisioned armies & administrators - subject to inspections by royal overseers; elite & skilled pros bound to monarch by oaths of obedience, fear of punishment, expectation of rewards (land grants, shares of booty/taxes); kings used wealth to expand ancestral capital & religious center @ Ashur & build royal cities | 8 | |
| 177709919 | Library of Ashurbanipal | contained official documents, literary & scientific texts | 9 | |
| 177709920 | Israel | crossroads of Anatolia, Egypt, Arabia, Mesopotamia; few natural resources; Negev Desert & wasteland of Sinai lie to south; Mediterranean coastal plain usually not under others' control (Philistines); center: rock-strewn hills of Shephelah; Galilee to north - fertile land of grassy hills & small plains; Jordan River runs down eastern side of region into Dead Sea (high salt content toxic to life) | 10 | |
| 177709921 | Hebrew Bible | called Old Testament by Christians; text today dates from 5th century B.C.E.; reflects point of view of priests who controlled Temple in Jerusalem; language reflects speech of Israelites until 500 B.C.E. - Semitic, most closely related Phoenician & Aramaic (later replaced Hebrew in Israel), more distantly related to Arabic & Akkadian of Assyrians; tells story of Abraham's family - born in Ur in southern Mesopotamia, Abraham rejected idol worship of homeland & migrated w/ family across Syrian desert, landed in Israel (had been promised to him & descendants as part of covenant w/ Israelite god Yahweh; Abraham probably lived in 20th cent. B.C.E.; son Isaac & grandson Jacob became leaders of wandering group; fighting sons of Jacob's several wives sold brother Joseph as slave to passing merchants heading for Egypt; Joseph became official @ pharaoh's court; Egyptians reduced Israelites to slaves; glosses over period from 1700 to 1500 B.C.E. when Egypt dominated by Hyksos (Semitic groups that infiltrated Nile Delta from northeast) - Israelite migration to Egypt & later enslavement connected to Hysksos' rise & fall; Egyptian sources complain about Apiru (derogatory term for caravan drivers, outcasts, bandits) - Apiru ~ Hebrew?; Israelite slavery coincided w/ era of ambitious building programs launched by New Kingdom pharaohs | 11 | |
| 177709922 | First Temple | built by Solomon to strengthen link between religious & secular authority in Jerusalem 15.) monotheism: absolute belief in 1 God; after Solomon's death around 920 B.C.E., final formulation | 12 | |
| 177709923 | Diaspora | Greek word meaning "dispersion" or "scattering"; communities developed synagogue (Greek for "bringing together") | 13 | |
| 177709924 | Phoenicians | major element of ancient population of Syria-Palestine; referred to selves as "Can'ani" - Canaanites | 14 | |
| 177709925 | Carthage | Phoenician colony; foundation date 814 B.C.E.; just outside city of Tunis in Tunisia; controlled mid-Mediterranean where Europe comes closest to Africa; Byrsa: original hilltop citadel of community/double harbor (inner harbor: 220 warships); watchtower; high walls (urban complex enclosed by wall 22 miles in length); outer commercial harbor filled w/ docks for ships; harbor could be closed off by iron chain; gov offices surround central sq. where magistrates heard legal cases outdoors; inner city - narrow, winding streets; multistory apt. buildings; sacred enclosures; sprawling suburban where wealthy built spacious villas, fields/veg gardens; pop 400,000 - Phoenicians, indigenous ppl (probably ancestors of Berbers), immigrants from other Mediterranean lands & sub-Saharan Africa; each year judges elected from upper class families to serve as heads of state; power in Senate (members of leading merchant families) - sat for life; inner circle of 30 senators made big decisions; sometimes Assembly of citizens elected public officials or voted on issues; navy dominated western Mediterranean; galley had ram in front that could pierce enemy hull; room for 170 rowers; claimed waters of western Mediterranean as own; foreign merchants could market goods, but if tried to operate own, risked ship sinking by navy; commerce: food, textiles, animal skins, slaves, silver, lead, iron, tin; goods re-exported; Hanno (captain of 5th cent B.C.E.) sailed through Strait of Gibraltar into Atlantic Ocean & explored West African coast; explored Atlantic Coast of Spain & France; Cornwall probably secured "Tin Islands" in southwestern England; Sardinia & southern Spain put under direct control of gov & army; citizens not required to serve in army; drawn into wars w/ Greeks & Romans from 6th to 4th cent B.C.E. - relied on people working for money (Numidians in North Africa, Iberians from Spain, Gauls from France, Italians); chief deity was Baal Hammon (male storm-god), Tanit (female fertility figure); elite would sacrifice male kids in crisis | 15 | |
| 177709926 | Neo-Babylonian kingdom | 626 - 539 B.C.E.; controlled most of territory of old Assyrian territory b/c of campaigns of Nabopolassar (625 - 605 B.C.E.) & Nebuchadnezzar (604 - 539 B.C.E.) | 16 |
