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| 107611836 | Niccolo Machiavelli | author of The Prince (16th century); emphasized realistic discussions of how to seize and maintain power; one of most influential authors of Italian Renaissance-made his opinion well known by using Greek and Roman examples | 0 | |
| 107611837 | humanism | focus on humankind as center of intellectual and artistic endeavor; method of study that emphasized the superiority of classical forms over medieval styles, in particular the study of ancient languages-changed the fact that religion was no longer predominant | 1 | |
| 107611838 | Northern Renaissance | cultural and intellectual movement of northern Europe; began later than Italian Renaissance c. 1450; centered in France, Low Countries, England and Germany; featured greater emphasis of religion than Italian Renaissance-changed culture and religion in countries other than Italy | 2 | |
| 107611839 | Francis I | king of France in the 16th century; regarded as Renaissance monarch; patron of arts; imposed new controls on Catholic church; ally of Ottoman sultan against Holy Roman emperor-one of many monarchs who employed sculptors to add to their palaces | 3 | |
| 107611840 | Johannes Gutenberg | introduced moveable type to western Europe in 15th century; credited with greatly expanded availability of printed books and pamphlets -introduced moveable type which made written documents more readily available and easier to produce | 4 | |
| 107611841 | European-style family | originated in 15th century among peasants and artisans of western Europe, featuring late marriage age, emphasis on the nuclear family, and a large minority who never married-a change in family structure that was a slight revolution | 5 | |
| 107611842 | Martin Luther | German monk; initiated Protestant Reformation in 1517 by nailing 95 these to door of Wittenberg church; emphasized primacy of faith over works stressed in Catholic church; accepted state control of church-protested sacraments and tried to generalize the Catholic religion | 6 | |
| 107611843 | Protestantism | general wave of religious dissent against Catholic church; generally held to have begun with Martin Luther's attack on Catholic beliefs in 1517; included many varieties of religious belief-urged state control of the church and proposed to get rid of pope control | 7 | |
| 107611844 | Angelican church | form of Protestantism set up in England after 1534; established by Henry VIII with himself as head, at least in part to obtain a divorce from his first wife; became increasingly Protestant following Henry's death-formed to challenge pope's authority | 8 | |
| 107611845 | Jean Calvin | French Protestant (16th century) who stressed doctrine of predestination; established center of his group at Swiss canton of Geneva; encouraged ideas of wider access to government, wider public education; Calvinism spread from Switzerland to northern Europe and North America-a more political way of thinking about religion | 9 | |
| 107611846 | Catholic Reformation | restatement of traditional Catholic beliefs in response to Protestant Reformation (16th century); established councils that revived Catholic doctrine and refuted Protestant beliefs-tried to push the general public to believe in Catholicism and to shy away from Protestantism | 10 | |
| 107611847 | Jesuits | a new religious order founded during the Catholic Reformation; active in politics, education, and missionary work; sponsored missions to South America, North America and Asia-regained many parts of Europe for the church and sponsored Catholic missionaries | 11 | |
| 107611848 | edict of Nantes | grant of tolerance to Protestants in France in 1598; granted only after lengthy civil war between Catholic and Protestant factions-granted more tolerance to Protestants and put a stall on much struggle between Protestants and Catholics | 12 | |
| 107611849 | Thirty Years' War | war within the Holy Roman Empire between the German Protestants and their allies (Sweden, Denmark, France) and the emperor and his ally, Spain; ended in 1648 after great destruction with Treaty of Westphalia-put Protestants against the Catholics and the Holy Roman Empire; largest struggle for religious dominance | 13 | |
| 107611850 | Treaty of Westphalia | ended Thirty Years' War in 1648; granted right to individual rulers within the Holy Roman Empire to choose their own religion-either Protestant or Catholic-created territorial tolerance within the Empire | 14 | |
| 107611851 | English Civil War | conflict from 1640 to 1660; featured religious disputes mixed with constitutional issues concerning the powers of the monarchy; ended with restoration of the monarchy in1660 following execution of the previous king-combined religious and other issues that were mostly political to put the peasants and other lower classes against the parliament and higher classes | 15 | |
| 107611852 | proletariat | class of working people without access to producing property; typically manufacturing workers, paid laborers in agricultural economy, or urban poor; in Europe, product of economic changes of 16th and 17th centuries-victimized peasants and some merchants because of commercialization | 16 | |
| 107611853 | witchcraft persecution | reflected resentment against the poor, uncertainties about religious truth; resulted in death of over 100,000 European between 1590 and 1650; particularly common in Protestant areas-came about because communities didn't want to accept responsibility for their poverty | 17 | |
| 107611854 | Scientific Revolution | culminated in 17th century; period of empirical advances associated with the development of wider theoretical generalizations; resulted in change in traditional beliefs of Middle Ages-promoted changes in popular outlook and affected formal intellectual life | 18 | |
| 107611855 | Copernicus | Polish monk and astronomer (16th century); disproved Hellenistic belief that the earth was at the center of the universe-the leading thinker bringing about science that had not been prominent in the past | 19 | |
| 107611856 | Galileo | published Copernicus' findings (17th century); added own discoveries concerning laws of gravity and planetary motion; condemned by Catholic church for his work-made scientific findings public knowledge and brought new findings to light | 20 | |
| 107611857 | William Harvey | English physician (17th century) who demonstrated circular movement of blood in animals, function of heart as a pump-highlighted chemical research and advanced understanding of anatomy | 21 | |
| 107611858 | Rene Descartes | established importance of skeptical review of all received wisdom (17th century); argued that human reason could then develop laws that would explain the fundamental workings of nature-made more people think about the knowledge they were hearing and created a more logical view on life | 22 | |
| 107611859 | Isaac Newton | English scientist during the 17th century; author of Principia; drew the various astronomical and physical observations and wider theories together in a neat framework of natural laws; established principles of motion; defined forces of gravity-brought past theories together as well as adding new knowledge to the formerly small scientific field | 23 | |
| 107611860 | Deism | concept of God current during the Scientific Revolution; role of divinity was to set natural laws in motion, not to regulate once process was begun-a new concept of God brought about by intellectuals | 24 | |
| 107611861 | John Locke | English philosopher during 17th century; argued that people could learn everything through senses and reason; argued that power of government came from the people, not divine right of kings; offered possibility of revolution to overthrow tyrants-a new idea that faith was irrelevant | 25 | |
| 107611862 | absolute monarchy | concept of government developed during rise of nation-states in western Europe during the 17th century; featured monarchs who passed laws without parliaments, appointed professionalized armies and bureaucracies, established state churches, imposed state economic policies-a new system that gave monarchs more power | 26 | |
| 107611863 | Louis XIV | French monarch of the late 17th century who personified absolute monarchy-embodied the idea of absolute monarchy | 27 | |
| 107611864 | Glorious Revolution | English overthrow of James II in 1688; resulted in affirmation of parliament as having basic sovereignty over the king-let the parliament win some power and a checking system over the king | 28 | |
| 107611865 | parliamentary monarchy | originated in England and Holland, 17th century, with kings partially checked by significant legislative powers in parliament-brought about tension between king and parliament | 29 | |
| 107611866 | Frederick the Great | Prussian king of the 18th century; attempted to introduce Enlightenment reforms into Germany; built on military and bureaucratic foundations of his predecessors; introduced freedom of religion; increased state control of economy-introduced greater possibility of freedom of religion | 30 | |
| 107611867 | Adam Smith | established liberal economics (Wealth of Nations, 1776); argued that government should avoid regulation of economy in favor of the operation of market forces-added more principles of economic behavior | 31 | |
| 107611868 | Mary Wollstonecraft | Enlightenment feminist thinker in England; argued that new political rights should extend to women-tried to get women more freedoms in the reformed England | 32 |
