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| 3394714573 | civilized vs. uncivilized nations | *civilized -->predominantly white and Anglo-Saxon or Teutonic, had the right and duty to intervene in the affairs of a "backward" nation to preserve order and stability *uncivilized-->generally nonwhite, Latin, or Slavic *Economic development as well as race had an impact on whether civilized or uncivilized | 0 | |
| 3394723541 | 1904 Japanese aggression | staged a surprise attack on the Russian fleet at Port Arthur in southern Manchuria (province of China controlled by Russia and Japan) | 1 | |
| 3394733047 | the Nobel Peace prize | Roosevelt won in 1906 for his work in ending the Russo-Japanese War | 2 | |
| 3394744799 | Great White Fleet | sixteen battleships of the new American navy sent on an unprecedented journey around the world that included a call on Japan to make sure Japan recognized the U.S.'s power | 3 | |
| 3394759874 | Spacial sphere of influence | Latin America | 4 | |
| 3394764071 | Venezuela crisis | 1902, the financially troubled government of Venezuela began to renege on debts to European bankers. Naval forces of Britain, Italy, and Germany blockaded the Venezuelan coast in response. Then German ships began to bombard a Venezuelan port amid rumors that Germany planned to establish a permanent base in the region. Roosevelt used the threat of American naval power to pressure the German navy to withdraw. | 5 | |
| 3394802367 | Roosevelt Corollary | 1904, the U.S. had the right not only to oppose European intervention in the Western Hemisphere but also to intervene in the domestic affairs of its neighbors if those neighbors proved unable to maintain order and national sovereignty on their own (according to Roosevelt), to the Monroe Doctrine | 6 | |
| 3394830749 | Dominican Republic crisis | first opportunity to us Roosevelt Corollary, a revolution had toppled the Dominican Republic's corrupt and bankrupt government in 1903, but the new regime proved no better able to make good on the country's $22 million in debts to European nations. Roosevelt established, in effect, an American receivership, assuming control of Dominican customs and distributing 45 percent of the revenues to the Dominicans and the rest to foreign creditors. This arrangement lasted, in one form or another, for more than three decades. | 7 | |
| 3394828686 | Platt Amendent | gave the United States the right to prevent any other foreign power from intruding into the new nation | 8 | |
| 3394832792 | Nicaragua vs. Colombia Canal | Panama Canal in Colombia over Nicaragua | 9 | |
| 3394835460 | Hay-Herren Treaty and Columbian legislature | Herren signed an agreement giving the United States perpetual rights to a six-mile-wide "canal zone" across Colombia. The outraged Colombian senate refused to ratify it. Colombia then sent a new representative to Washington with instructions to demand a higher payment from the Americans plus a share of the payment to the French. | 10 | |
| 3394836629 | USS Nashville and to "maintain order" | Their presence prevented Colombian forces from suppressing the rebellion, and three days later Roosevelt recognized Panama as an independent nation, work on the canal continued | 11 | |
| 3394838230 | Philander C. Knox | Taft's secretary of state, worked aggressively to extend American investments into less developed regions. Critics called his policies "Dollar Diplomacy." | 12 | |
| 3394839451 | Dollar Diplomacy | extend American investments into less developed regions. Critics called his policies "Dollar Diplomacy." | 13 | |
| 3394840180 | Nicaragua crisis (2) | When a revolution broke out in Nicaragua in 1909, the administration quickly sided with the insurgents (who had been inspired to revolt by an American mining company) and sent troops into the country to seize the customs houses. As soon as peace was restored, Knox encouraged American bankers to offer substantial loans to the new government, thus increasing Washington's financial leverage over the country. When the new pro-American government faced an insurrection less than two years later, Taft again landed troops in Nicaragua, this time to protect the existing regime. The troops remained there for more than a decade. | 14 | |
| 3394842329 | Dominican Republic, Haiti, Danish West Indes, Nicaragua again | Having already seized control of the finances of the Dominican Republic in 1905, the United States established a military government there in 1916. The military occupation lasted eight years. In neighboring Haiti, Wilson landed marines in 1915 to quell a revolution, in the course of which a mob had murdered an unpopular president. American military forces remained in the country until 1934, and American officers drafted the new Haitian constitution adopted in 1918. When Wilson began to fear that the Danish West Indies might be about to fall into the hands of Germany, he bought the colony from Denmark and renamed it the Virgin Islands. Concerned about the possibility of European influence in Nicaragua, he signed a treaty with that country's government ensuring that no other nation would build a canal there and winning for the United States the right to intervene in Nicaragua to protect American interests. | 15 | |
| 3394842941 | Porfirio Diaz | under the friendly auspices of this corrupt dictator, American businessmen had been establishing an enormous economic presence in Mexico | 16 | |
| 3394843783 | Francisco Madero | In 1910, however, Díaz had been overthrown by the popular leader, seemed hostile to American businesses in Mexico | 17 | |
| 3394844741 | Victoriano Huerta | The United States quietly encouraged a reactionary general, Victoriano Huerta, to depose Madero early in 1913, and the Taft administration, in its last weeks in office, prepared to recognize the new Huerta regime and welcome back a receptive environment for American investments in Mexico. Before it could do so, however, the new government murdered Madero, shortly before Woodrow Wilson took office in Washington. The new president instantly announced that he would never recognize Huerta's "government of butchers." | 18 | |
| 3394846697 | Constitutionalists and Venustiano Carranza | Wilson hoped that simply by refusing to recognize Huerta he could help topple the regime and bring to power the opposing Constitutionalists, led by Venustiano Carranza. But when Huerta, with the support of American business interests, established a full military dictatorship in October 1913, the president became more assertive. | 19 | |
| 3394849967 | U.S.S Dolphin and Tampico | In April 1914, an officer in Huerta's army briefly arrested several American sailors from the USS Dolphin who had gone ashore in Tampico, on Mexico's east coast. The men were immediately released, but the American admiral-unsatisfied with the apology he received-demanded that the Huerta forces fire a twenty-one-gun salute to the American flag as a public display of penance. The Mexicans refused. Wilson used the trivial incident as a pretext for seizing the Mexican port of Veracruz. | 20 | |
| 3394849968 | Veracruz | Wilson had envisioned a bloodless action, but in a clash with Mexican troops in Veracruz, the Americans killed 126 Mexican soldiers and suffered 19 casualties of their own. Now at the brink of war, Wilson began to look for a way out. His show of force, however, had helped strengthen the position of the Carranza faction, which captured Mexico City in August and forced Huerta to flee the country. At last, it seemed, the crisis might be over. | 21 | |
| 3394850605 | Pancho Villa | Carranza's erstwhile lieutenant, who was now leading a rebel army of his own | 22 | |
| 3394851583 | January, March 1916 | When Villa's military position deteriorated, however, Wilson abandoned him and finally, in October 1915, granted preliminary recognition to the Carranza government. Villa, angry at what he considered an American betrayal, retaliated in January 1916 by shooting sixteen American mining engineers in northern Mexico. Two months later, he led his soldiers (or "bandits," as the United States called them) across the border into Columbus, New Mexico, where they killed seventeen more Americans. | 23 | |
| 3394852917 | General John J. Pershing | lead an American expeditionary force across the Mexican border in pursuit of Villa | 24 | |
| 3396896831 | Triple Entente | Britain, France, and Russia | 25 | |
| 3396898657 | Triple Alliance | Germany, Austro-Hungarian empire, and Italy | 26 | |
| 3396898658 | 2 biggest powers | England and Germany | 27 | |
| 3396900015 | June 28, 1914 | Ferdinand was assassinated | 28 | |
| 3396900016 | July-August of 1914 | War raged through most of Europe | 29 | |
| 3396902436 | "impartial in thoughts as well as deed" | Wilson called fellow citizens to remain this | 30 | |
| 3396902437 | American sympathizing | Some with Germany, others with Britain like Wilson | 31 | |
| 3396904176 | economic non-neutrality | The U.S. because of neutrality should be able to trade with both, but because of the blockade Britain set up against Germany, it would be difficult while staying neutral | 32 | |
| 3396905104 | Lusitania | German sub sank this British ship causing many British deaths, a act of piracy according to Roosevelt | 33 | |
| 3396905105 | Sussex Pledge | Wilson demanded Germany to not do sub warfare, central powers continue commitment to neutral rights, 1916 announcement/act allies forming ships to sink subs caused Germany to fire on such vessels---> France unarmed sussex. U.S. again demanded Germany to not, Germany relented | 34 | |
| 3396906726 | Wilson flip-flopping | At first sided with pacifists but as tensions with Germany grew he became a preparedness advocate | 35 | |
| 3396909031 | "he kept us out of war" | 1916 slogan for Wilsons reelection, Hughes supported by TR-->Wilson did nothing to discourage savings that H was more likely to lead to war---> nation proud to fight | 36 | |
| 3396910248 | Wilson speech to congress in 1917 | progressive idea, needed something to justify american intervention and unite public opinions, post war plan-->maintain peace through permanent league of nation, peace w/o victory | 37 | |
| 3396911399 | Germany-January 1917 | launched assaults on enemy lines in France, began unrestricted sub warfare against Britain and US ships --> hoped allied defenses would collapse before US intervention | 38 | |
| 3396912455 | Zimmerman telegram | helped build sentiment (US) for war, B gave Wilson telegram intercepted from G minister Zim to Mx saying that Mx should ally w/ G to regain their lost provinces | 39 | |
| 3396912456 | Russian Revolution | toppled czarist regime/monarchy--> repub., how US can ally themselves and not have a dirty conscience | 40 | |
| 3396986977 | April 2, 1917 | wilson asked congress for declaration of war after G torpedoed 3 US ships | 41 | |
| 3404698377 | British ships and American convoys | 1/4 ships never returned, fleet of america destroyers aided the B navy in assault of G subs | 42 | |
| 3404700830 | Bolshevik Revolution | November 1917, after, new gov't led by VI Lenin negotiated a hasty and costly peace w/ the central pwrs, freeing additional G troops to fight on the W front | 43 | |
| 3404700831 | TR | in favor of voluntary recruitment, wilson rejected, old traditions of war now obselete | 44 | |
| 3404701859 | Newton D. Baker | secretary of war, national draft | 45 | |
| 3404701860 | Champ Clark | house speaker, "there is precious little difference between a conscript and a convict" | 46 | |
| 3404704643 | Selective Service Act | Baker won passage of this in mid may (3 million to army, 2 million and joined various branches voluntarily:AEF) | 47 | |
| 3404704644 | Shirkers | those who evaded drafts | 48 | |
| 3404706002 | AEF + Diversity | women and African Americans | 49 | |
| 3404709823 | Women's motor corps | auxiliary roles in hospitals and offices | 50 | |
| 3411869389 | African American roles | marines wouldnt accept them | 51 | |
| 3411869390 | IQ test | aptitude test for military, only reflected education | 52 | |
| 3411871971 | General John A Pershing | AEF joined Allied forces under him | 53 | |
| 3411873380 | American troop experience | trench warfare, low morale | 54 | |
| 3411874821 | Chateau-Thierry | June 1918, American forces there assisted F in repelling G | 55 | |
| 3411874822 | Rheims | 6 weeks after Chateau-Thierry, helped turn away another assault | 56 | |
| 3411876983 | Argonne Forest | Sept 26, large assault against G here, 7 weeks long, pushed G back to border and cut supply line | 57 | |
| 3411876984 | Armistace | G wanted it | 58 | |
| 3411879303 | November 11, 1918 | accepted G armistice, great war closed | 59 | |
| 3411880710 | New forms of tech warfare | machine guns, mobile weapons, faster guns, chemical weapons, planes and battleships used, trench warfare now necessary | 60 | |
| 3411880711 | Caualties | > B 1m > F 1.7m > G 2m > A-HE 1.5m > I 460k > R 1.7m > US 112k | 61 | |
| 3411949198 | financing the war | -U.S. government had spent $32 billion for expenses directly related to the conflict -launched a major drive to solicit loans from the American people by selling "Liberty Bonds" to the public. By 1920, the sale of bonds, to both individuals and institutions, accompanied by elaborate patriotic appeals, had produced $23 billion. -new taxes were bringing in an additional sum of nearly $10 billion-some from levies on the "excess profits" of corporations, much from new, steeply graduated income and inheritance taxes that ultimately rose as high as 70 percent in some brackets. | 62 | |
| 3411954938 | Council of National Defense/Civilian Advisory Commisson | -composed of members of Wilson's cabinet (CND) -set up local defense councils in every state and locality (CAC) -economic mobilization, according to this first plan, was to rest on a dispersal of power to local communities | 63 | |
| 3411954939 | war boards | administrative structure that slowly emerged from such proposals was dominated by a series of "war boards," one to oversee the railroads, one to supervise fuel supplies (largely coal), another to handle food (a board that helped elevate to prominence the brilliant young engineer and business executive Herbert Hoover). The boards generally succeeded in meeting essential war needs without paralyzing the domestic economy. | 64 | |
| 3411957452 | WIB | -agency created in July 1917 to coordinate government purchases of military supplies -casually organized at first, it stumbled badly until March 1918, when Wilson restructured it and placed it under the control of the Wall Street financier Bernard Baruch. From then on, the board wielded powers greater (in theory at least) than any other government agency had ever possessed. Baruch decided which factories would convert to the production of which war materials and set prices for the goods they produced. When materials were scarce, Baruch decided to whom they should go. When corporations were competing for government contracts, he chose among them. He was, it seemed, providing the centralized regulation of the economy that some progressives had long urged. -plagued by mismanagement and inefficiency. Its apparent success rested in large part on the sheer extent of American resources and productive capacities. Nor was the WIB in any real sense an example of state control of the economy. | 65 | |
| 3411957453 | dollar-a-year men | Baruch viewed himself as the partner of business; and within the WIB, businessmen themselves-the so-called dollar-a-year men, who took paid leave from their corporate jobs and worked for the government for a token salary-supervised the affairs of the private economy. Baruch ensured that manufacturers who coordinated their efforts with his goals would be exempt from antitrust laws. He helped major industries earn enormous profits from their efforts. | 66 | |
| 3411959891 | National War Labor Board | -established in April 1918 to resolve labor disputes, pressured industry to grant important concessions to workers: an eight-hour day, the maintenance of minimal living standards, equal pay for women doing equal work, recognition of the right of unions to organize and bargain collectively. -in return, it insisted that workers forgo all strikes and that employers not engage in lockouts. | 67 | |
| 3411959892 | Ludlow Massacre | in 1914, workers (mostly Italians, Greeks, and Slavs) walked out of coal mines owned by John D. Rockefeller. Joined by their wives and daughters, they continued the strike even after they had been evicted from company housing and had moved into hastily erected tents. The state militia was called into the town to protect the mines, but in fact (as was often the case), it actually worked to help employers defeat the strikers. | 68 | |
| 3411962098 | Lafayette Theatre | was the first New York theater to desegregate, in as early as 1912. African American theatergoers could sit in the orchestra section rather than just in the balcony as was the practice in other New York theaters. | 69 | |
| 3411962099 | Great Migration | -migration of hundreds of thousands of African Americans from the rural South into northern industrial cities -"push" and a "pull." -push was the poverty, indebtedness, racism, and violence many black men and women experienced in the South -pull was the prospect of factory jobs in the urban North and the opportunity to live in communities where blacks could enjoy more freedom and autonomy | 70 | |
| 3411962100 | Race riots | As the black communities expanded, they inevitably began to rub up against white neighborhoods, with occasionally violent results. In East St. Louis, Illinois, a white mob attacked a black neighborhood on July 2, 1917, burned down many houses, and shot the residents of some of them as they fled. As many as forty African Americans died. | 71 | |
| 3411967968 | Women in Industry Board | -to oversee the movement of these women into the jobs left behind by men -after the war, the board became the Women's Bureau, a permanent agency dedicated to protecting the interests of women in the workforce. | 72 | |
| 3411970058 | peace movement before 1917 | had many constituencies: German Americans, Irish Americans, religious pacifists (Quakers, Mennonites, and others), intellectuals and groups on the left such as the Socialist Party and the Industrial Workers of the World, all of whom considered the war a meaningless battle among capitalist nations for commercial supremacy-an opinion many others, in America and Europe, later came to share. | 73 | |
| 3411970059 | Carrie Chapman Catt | leader of the fight for woman suffrage, helped create the Woman's Peace Party, with a small but active membership | 74 | |
| 3411971630 | NAWSA | largest women's organization, supported the war and, more than that, presented itself as a patriotic organization dedicated to advancing the war effort. Its membership grew dramatically as a result. | 75 | |
| 3411971631 | Popularity of WW1 | -not as popular among the American people as World War II would be -most of the country supported the intervention once it began. -outbursts of fervent patriotism, floods of voluntary enlistments in the military, and greatly increased displays of patriotism. -Women joined their local Red Cross in an effort to contribute to the war effort. -Children raised money for war bonds in their schools. -Churches included prayers for the president and the troops in their services. -gave a large boost to the wave of religious revivalism that had been growing for a decade before 1917; revivalism, in turn, became a source of support for the war. | 76 | |
| 3411973204 | CPI | -most conspicuous government effort to rally public support was a vast propaganda campaign orchestrated by this -directed by the Denver journalist George Creel, who spoke openly of the importance of achieving social unity -upervised the distribution of tons of pro-war literature (etc) | 77 | |
| 3411974553 | the Espionage Act of 1917 | -gave the government new tools with which to respond to reports -created stiff penalties for spying, sabotage, or obstruction of the war effort (crimes that were often broadly defined); and it empowered the Post Office Department to ban "seditious" material from the mails | 78 | |
| 3411978601 | The Sabotage Act Na the Sedition Act | These bills expanded the meaning of the Espionage Act to make illegal any public expression of opposition to the war; in practice, it allowed officials to prosecute anyone who criticized the president or the government. | 79 | |
| 3411980630 | Anti capitalist and anti war groups | -frequent targets of the new legislation -Socialist Party and the Industrial Workers of the World | 80 | |
| 3411980679 | Eugene V Debs | the humane leader of the Socialist Party and an opponent of the war, was sentenced to ten years in prison in 1918. Only a pardon by President Warren G. Harding ultimately won his release in 1921. | 81 | |
| 3411982769 | Big Bill Haywood | -energetically prosecuted -only by fleeing to the Soviet Union did Haywood avoid long imprisonment | 82 | |
| 3411985065 | Vigilante mobs and citizens' groups | -sprang up to "discipline" those who dared challenge the war -to mobilize "respectable" members of their communities to root out disloyalty | 83 | |
| 3411985066 | American Protective League | enlisted the services of 250,000 people, who served as "agents"-prying into the activities and thoughts of their neighbors, opening mail, tapping telephones, and in general attempting to impose unity of opinion on their communities | 84 | |
| 3411988498 | patriotic organizations | -Attorney General Thomas W. Gregory, a particularly avid supporter of repressing dissent, described the league and similar organizations approvingly as this (APL) -other vigilante organizations-the National Security League, the Boy Spies of America, the American Defense Society-performed much the same function | 85 | |
| 3411989882 | 100% Americanism | -the director of the National Security League described the origins of the anti-immigrant sentiment, which was producing growing support for what many citizens were now calling this | 86 | |
| 3411989883 | Anti German Americans | -campaign to purge society of all things German quickly gathered speed -Sauerkraut was renamed "liberty cabbage." Frankfurters became "liberty sausage." -performances of German music were frequently banned -german books were removed from the shelves of libraries -courses in the German language were removed from school curricula; the California Board of Education called it "a language that disseminates the ideals of autocracy, brutality, and hatred." -routinely fired from jobs in war industries, lest they "sabotage" important tasks, sometimes fired from war-unrelated reasons | 87 | |
| 3441298925 | 3 parts of the 14 points | -war aims had 14 district positions -Wilton's proposals contained 8 specific recommendations for adjusting post war boundaries and for establishing new nations to replace the defunct Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires ---> reflected his belief in the right of all ppls to self determination -5 general principles to govern international conduct in the future: freedom of the seas, open covenants instead of secret treasuries, reductions in armaments,free trade, impartial mediation of colonial claims -proposal for a League of Nations that would help implement these new principles and territorial adjustments and resolve future controversies | 88 | |
| 3441298926 | Problem with self determination | *he provided no formula for deciding how to implement the "national self-determination" he promised for subjugated peoples *he said little about economic rivalries and their effect on international relations, even though such economic tensions had been in large part responsible for the war | 89 | |
| 3441298927 | Wilson and lenin | *Lenin had issued his own statement of war aims, strikingly similar to Wilson's *Wilson also realized that Lenin was now a competitor in the effort to lead the postwar order ---> he announced the Fourteen Points in part to ensure that the world looked to the United States, not Russia, for guidance | 90 | |
| 3441298928 | Ally vs associate | Wilson refused to make the United States their "ally" but had kept his distance as an "associate" of his European partners, keeping American military forces separate from the Allied armies they were joining | 91 | |
| 3441298929 | British and French (on Germany) | *stored up an enormous reserve of bitterness toward Germany ---> in no mood for a benign and generous peace *British prime minister, David Lloyd George, insisted for a time that the German kaiser be captured and executed. *He and Georges Clemenceau, president of France, remained determined to the end to gain something from the struggle to compensate them for the catastrophe they had suffered. | 92 | |
| 3441298930 | Wilson and congress | *he unwisely appealed to the American voters to support his peace plans by electing Democrats to Congress in the November elections. *a Republican victory would be "interpreted on the other side of the water as a repudiation of my leadership." *days later, the Republicans captured majorities in both houses --> domestic economic troubles, more than international issues, had been the most important factor in the voting; but because of the president's ill-timed appeal, the results damaged his ability to claim broad popular support for his peace plans. | 93 | |
| 3441298931 | The big four | David Lloyd George representing Great Britain; Georges Clemenceau representing France; Vittorio Orlando, the prime minister of Italy; and Wilson, who hoped to dominate them all | 94 | |
| 3441298932 | White Russians | *new Bolshevik government was still fighting "White" counterrevolutionaries *Americans soon became involved, at least indirectly, in assisting the White Russians (the anti-Bolsheviks) in their fight against the new regime | 95 | |
| 3441298933 | In Paris Wilson didn't get... | *unable to win approval of many of the broad principles he had espoused: freedom of the seas, which the British refused even to discuss; free trade; "open covenants openly arrived at" (the Paris negotiations themselves were often conducted in secret). *he was forced to accept a transfer of German colonies in the Pacific to Japan; the British had promised them in exchange for Japanese assistance in the war. *Wilson's pledge of "national self-determination" for all peoples suffered numerous assaults. Economic and strategic demands were constantly coming into conflict with the principle of cultural nationalism. | 96 | |
| 3441298934 | Reparations | *president opposed demanding compensation from the defeated Central Powers *other Allied leaders were insistent, and slowly Wilson gave way and accepted the principle of reparations, the specific sum to be set later by a commission *that figure, established in 1921, was $56 billion, supposedly to pay for damages to civilians and for military pensions. Continued negotiations over the next decade scaled the sum back considerably. In the end, Germany paid only $9 billion, which was still more than its crippled economy could afford *he reparations, combined with other territorial and economic penalties, constituted an effort to keep Germany weak for the indefinite future. Never again, the Allied leaders believed, should the Germans be allowed to become powerful enough to threaten the peace of Europe. | 97 | |
| 3441298935 | In Paris Wilson got... | *he secured approval of a plan to place many former colonies and imperial possessions (among them Palestine) in "trusteeship" under the League of Nations-the so-called mandate system. *he blocked a French proposal to break up western Germany into a group of smaller states. *he helped design the creation of two new nations: Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia, which were welded together out of, among other territories, pieces of the former Austro-Hungarian Empire. Each nation contained an uneasy collection of ethnic groups that had frequently battled one another in the past. | 98 | |
| 3441298936 | League of nations | *permanent international organization to oversee world affairs and prevent future wars *January 25, 1919, the Allies voted to accept the "covenant" of the League of Nations; and with that, Wilson believed, the peace treaty was transformed from a disappointment into a success. *provided for an assembly of nations that would meet regularly to debate means of resolving disputes and protecting the peace. Authority to implement League decisions would rest with a nine-member executive council; the United States would be one of five permanent members of the council, along with Britain, France, Italy, and Japan. (The covenant left many questions unanswered, most notably how the League would enforce its decisions. Wilson, however, was confident that once established, the new organization would find suitable answers.) | 99 | |
| 3441298937 | Revisions to the league | *after a brief trip to Washington in February 1919, during which he listened to harsh objections to the treaty from members of the Senate and others, he returned to Europe and insisted on several modifications in the covenant to satisfy his critics. *the revisions ensured that the United States would not be obliged to accept a League mandate to oversee a territory and that the League would not challenge the Monroe Doctrine. (but the changes were not enough to mollify his opponents, and Wilson refused to go further) | 100 | |
| 3446056175 | Treaty of Versailles | July 10, 1919 | 101 | |
| 3441298938 | Irreconcilables | some senators-the fourteen so-called irreconcilables, many of them western isolationists-opposed the agreement on principle | 102 | |
| 3441298939 | Wilson ordeal | *Wilson embarked on a grueling, cross-country speaking tour to arouse public support for the treaty (in a little more than three weeks, he traveled over 8,000 miles by train, speaking as often as four times a day, resting hardly at all) *after speaking at Pueblo, Colorado, on September 25, he collapsed with severe headaches. Canceling the rest of his itinerary, he rushed back to Washington, D.C., where, a few days later, he suffered a major stroke. For two weeks he was close to death; for six weeks more, he was so seriously ill that he could conduct virtually no public business. His wife and his doctor formed an almost impenetrable barrier around him, shielding him from any official pressures that might impede his recovery, preventing the public from receiving any accurate information about the gravity of his condition. | 103 | |
| 3441298940 | Senate vote | When the Senate Foreign Relations Committee finally sent the treaty to the full Senate for ratification, recommending nearly fifty amendments and reservations, Wilson refused to consider any of them. When the full Senate voted in November to accept fourteen of the reservations, Wilson gave stern directions to his Democratic allies: they must vote only for a treaty with no changes whatsoever; any other version must be defeated. On November 19, 1919, forty-two Democrats, following the president's instructions, joined with the thirteen Republican "irreconcilables" to reject the amended treaty. When the Senate voted on the original version without any reservations, thirty-eight senators, all but one Democrats, voted to approve it; fifty-five senators (some Democrats among them) voted no. | 104 | |
| 3441298941 | Lingering effects of the war | *american economy experienced a severe postwar recession. And much of middle-class America responded to demands for change with a fearful, conservative hostility. The aftermath of war brought not the age of liberal reform that progressives had predicted, but a period of repression and reaction. *Citizens of Washington, D.C., on the day after the armistice, found it impossible to place long-distance telephone calls: the lines were jammed with officials of the war agencies canceling government contracts. The fighting had ended sooner than anyone had anticipated, and without warning, without planning, the nation was launched into the difficult task of economic reconversion. ***at first, the wartime boom continued. But the postwar prosperity rested largely on the lingering effects of the war (government deficit spending continued for some months after the armistice) and on sudden, temporary demands (a booming market for scarce consumer goods at home and a strong market for American products in the war-ravaged nations of Europe). This brief postwar boom was accompanied, however, by raging inflation, a result in part of the rapid abandonment of wartime price controls. Through most of 1919 and 1920, prices rose at an average of more than 15 percent a year. | 105 | |
| 3441298942 | Postwar recession | *late in 1920, the economic bubble burst, as many of the temporary forces that had created it disappeared and as inflation began killing the market for consumer goods. *Between 1920 and 1921, the gross national product (GNP) declined nearly 10 percent; 100,000 businesses went bankrupt; 453,000 farmers lost their land; nearly 5 million Americans lost their jobs. *in this unpromising economic environment, leaders of organized labor set out to consolidate the advances they had made in the war, which now seemed in danger of being lost. *the raging inflation of 1919 wiped out the modest wage gains workers had achieved during the war; many laborers worried about job security as hundreds of thousands of veterans returned to the workforce; arduous working conditions-such as the twelve-hour workday in the steel industry-continued to be a source of discontent. | 106 | |
| 3441298943 | Unions role | Employers aggravated the resentment by using the end of the war (and the end of government controls) to rescind benefits they had been forced to give workers in 1917 and 1918-most notably recognition of unions. | 107 | |
| 3441298944 | Seattle, Washington | *January, a walkout by shipyard workers in Seattle, Washington, evolved into a general strike that brought the entire city almost to a standstill. *the mayor requested and received the assistance of U.S. Marines to keep the city running, and eventually the strike failed. | 108 | |
| 3441298945 | Boston | *september, there was a strike by the Boston police force, which was responding to layoffs and wage cuts by demanding recognition of its union --> Boston erupted in violence and looting. *efforts by local businessmen, veterans, and college students to patrol the streets proved ineffective; and finally Governor Calvin Coolidge called in the National Guard to restore order. *boston officials dismissed the entire police force and hired a new one. | 109 | |
| 3441298946 | Steelworkers | *September 1919, the greatest strike in American history began, when 350,000 steelworkers in several eastern and midwestern cities walked off the job, demanding an eight-hour workday and recognition of their union. *violence coming from employers, who hired armed guards to disperse picket lines and escort strikebreakers into factories. *it climaxed in a riot in Gary, Indiana, in which eighteen strikers were killed. Steel executives managed to keep most plants running with nonunion labor, and public opinion was so hostile to the strikers that the AFL-having at first endorsed the strike-soon timidly repudiated it. *by January, the strike had collapsed. It was a setback from which organized labor would not recover for more than a decade. | 110 | |
| 3441298947 | African Americans | *400,000 black men who had served in the armed forces during the war came home in 1919 and marched down the main streets of the industrial cities with other returning troops. *(in New York and other cities), they marched again through the streets of black neighborhoods such as Harlem, led by jazz bands, cheered by thousands of African Americans, worshiped as heroes. *The black soldiers were an inspiration to thousands of urban African Americans, a sign, they thought, that a new age had come, that the glory of black heroism in the war would make it impossible for white society ever again to treat African Americans as less than equal citizens. W. E. B. Du Bois, watching the African American soldiers returning home, conveyed his hopes for a new life for them. | 111 | |
| 3441298948 | 15th regiment | the all-black Fifteenth Army Regiment marches up Fifth Avenue in New York City in 1917, shortly after the United States entered World War I. They are en route to an army training camp in New York State before traveling to the front in Europe. Less than two years later, many of these same men marched through Harlem on their return from the war, and again down Fifth Avenue, before cheering crowds-convinced, wrongly, that their service in the war would win them important new freedoms at home (picture in book) | 112 | |
| 3441298949 | Racial violence | *in the South, there was a sudden increase in lynchings: more than seventy blacks, some of them war veterans, died at the hands of white mobs in 1919 alone. *in the North, black factory workers faced widespread layoffs as returning white veterans displaced them from their jobs. African American veterans found no significant new opportunities for advancement. Rural black migrants to northern cities encountered white communities unfamiliar with and generally hostile to them; and as whites became convinced that black workers with lower wage demands were hurting them economically, animosity grew rapidly. | 113 | |
| 3441298950 | Chicago race riots | *in Chicago, a black teenager swimming in Lake Michigan on a hot July day happened to drift toward a white beach. Whites on shore allegedly stoned him unconscious; he sank and drowned. Angry blacks gathered in crowds and marched into white neighborhoods to retaliate; whites formed even larger crowds and roamed into black neighborhoods shooting, stabbing, and beating passersby, destroying homes and properties. For more than a week, Chicago was virtually at war. In the end, 38 people died-15 whites and 23 blacks-and 537 were injured; over 1,000 people were left homeless. | 114 | |
| 3441298951 | Marcus Garvey | *Jamaican, began to attract a wide American following-mostly among poor urban blacks-with an ideology of black nationalism. Garvey encouraged African Americans to take pride in their own achievements and to develop an awareness of their African heritage-to reject assimilation into white society and develop pride in what Garvey argued was their own superior race and culture. His United Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) launched a chain of black-owned grocery stores and pressed for the creation of other black businesses. Eventually, Garvey began urging his supporters to leave America and "return" to Africa, where they could create a new society of their own. *In the 1920s, the Garvey movement experienced explosive growth for a time; and the UNIA became notable for its mass rallies and parades, for the opulent uniforms of its members, and for the growth of its enterprises. *It began to decline, however, after Garvey was indicted in 1923 on charges of business fraud. He was deported to Jamaica two years later. But the allure of black nationalism, which he helped make visible to millions of African Americans, survived in black culture long after Garvey himself was gone. | 115 | |
| 3441298952 | Red scare | The bombings crystallized what was already a growing determination among many middle-class Americans (and some government officials) to fight back against radicalism-a determination steeled by the repressive atmosphere of the war years. This antiradicalism accompanied, and reinforced, the already strong commitment among old-stock Protestants to the idea of "100 percent Americanism." And it produced what became known as the Red Scare. | 116 | |
| 3441298953 | A Mitchell Palmer | the greatest contribution to the Red Scare came from the federal government. On New Year's Day, 1920, Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer and his ambitious assistant, J. Edgar Hoover, orchestrated a series of raids on alleged radical centers throughout the country and arrested more than 6,000 people. | 117 | |
| 3441298954 | Palmer raids | *intended to uncover large caches of weapons and explosives; they discovered only three pistols. *most of those arrested were ultimately released, but about 500 who were not American citizens were summarily deported. | 118 | |
| 3441298955 | Sacco and Vanzetti | *in May 1920, two Italian immigrants, Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti, were charged with the murder of a paymaster in Braintree, Massachusetts. The evidence against them was questionable; but because both men were confessed anarchists, they faced a widespread public presumption of guilt. *they were convicted in a trial of extraordinary injudiciousness, before an openly prejudiced judge, Webster Thayer, and were sentenced to death. Over the next several years, public support for Sacco and Vanzetti grew to formidable proportions. But all requests for a new trial or a pardon were denied. *on August 23, 1927, amid widespread protests around the world, Sacco and Vanzetti, still proclaiming their innocence, died in the electric chair. Theirs was a cause that a generation of Americans never forgot. | 119 | |
| 3441298956 | Defense and civil liberties | *discredited the Red Scare & helped give new force of the Bill of Rights *heavy-handed actions of the federal government after the war created a powerful backlash. It destroyed the career of A. Mitchell Palmer. It almost nipped in the bud the ascent of J. Edgar Hoover. It damaged the Democratic Party. *it led to an organization committed to protecting civil liberties: the National Civil Liberties Bureau, launched in 1917, which in 1920 was renamed the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), which remains a prominent institution today. *at the same time, members of the Supreme Court-most notably Justices Oliver Wendell Holmes and Louis Brandeis-gradually moved toward a strong position of defense of unpopular speech. The clash of "fighting faiths," Holmes wrote in a dissent in 1920, was best resolved "by free trade in ideas-that the best test of truth is ... the competition of the market." *this and other dissents eventually became law as other justices committed themselves to a robust defense of speech, however unpopular. | 120 | |
| 3441298957 | 19th amendment | On August 26, 1920, the Nineteenth Amendment, guaranteeing women the right to vote, became part of the Constitution | 121 | |
| 3441298958 | Shepherd Towner maternity and Infacy act | *members of Congress-concerned that women would vote as a bloc on the basis of women's issues-passed the Sheppard-Towner Maternity and Infancy Act in 1921, one of the first pieces of federal welfare legislation that provided funds for supporting the health of women and infants. | 122 | |
| 3441298959 | Cable act | *concern about the women's vote also appeared to create support for the 1922 Cable Act, which granted women the rights of U.S. citizenship independent of their husbands' status, and for the proposed (but never ratified) 1924 constitutional amendment to outlaw child labor. | 123 | |
| 3441298960 | Candidates in the 1920 election | Woodrow Wilson wanted the campaign to be a referendum on the League of Nations, and the Democratic candidates, Ohio governor James M. Cox and Assistant Secretary of the Navy Franklin D. Roosevelt, tried to keep Wilson's ideals alive. The Republican presidential nominee, however, offered a different vision. He was Warren Gamaliel Harding, an obscure Ohio senator whom party leaders had chosen as their nominee confident that he would do their bidding once in office. | 124 | |
| 3441298961 | Return to normalcy | Harding offered few ideals, only a vague promise of a return, as he later phrased it, to "normalcy." He won in a landslide. The Republican ticket received 61 percent of the popular vote and carried every state outside the South. The party made major gains in Congress as well. Woodrow Wilson, who had tried and failed to create a postwar order based on democratic ideals, stood repudiated. Early in 1921, he retired to a house on S Street in Washington, where he lived quietly until his death in 1924. In the meantime, for most Americans, a new era had begun. | 125 |
