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| 3849465860 | osmoregulation | general term for processes by which animals control solute concentrations and balance water gain and loss | 0 | |
| 3849478802 | osmolarity | unit of measurement for solute concentration; number of moles of solute per liter of solution; human blood is 200 mOsm/L | 1 | |
| 3849492427 | osmoconformer | isoosmotic with its surroundings | 2 | |
| 3849494350 | osmoregulator | control internal osmolarity independent of that of the external environment | 3 | |
| 3849513189 | stenohaline | animals that cannot tolerate substantial changes in external osmolarity | 4 | |
| 3849515661 | euryhaline | animals that can survive large fluctuations in external osmolarity | 5 | |
| 3849520852 | desiccation | extreme dehydration | 6 | |
| 3849522127 | anhydrobiosis | animals that can enter a dormant state when their habitats dry up | 7 | |
| 3849528269 | transport epithelia | one or more layers of epithelial cells specialized for moving particular solutes in controlled amounts in specific directions; typically arranged into complex tubular networks with extensive surface areas | 8 | |
| 3849540862 | ammonia | NH3; enzymes remove nitrogen in this form when proteins and nucleic acids are broken apart for energy or converted to carbohydrates or fats ; ion form is very toxic | 9 | |
| 3849559726 | urea | most terrestrial animals secrete waste in this form which is the product of a metabolic cycle that combines ammonia with carbon dioxide in the liver; very low toxicity but energy expended to produce urea from ammonia | 10 | |
| 3849570497 | uric acid | primary nitrogenous waste in birds, reptiles, etc.; relatively nontoxic and does not readily dissolve in water so it can be excreted as a semisolid paste with little water loss; more energetically expensive than urea; occurs in small amounts in humans with purine breakdown | 11 | |
| 3849597011 | filtration | excretory tubule collects a filtrate from the blood; water and solutes are forced by blood pressure across the selectively permeable membranes of a cluster of capillaries and into the excretory tubule | 12 | |
| 3849604796 | filtrate | water and small solutes such as salts, sugars, amino acids, and nitrogenous wastes cross the membrane forming this solution | 13 | |
| 3849607952 | reabsorption | transport epithelium reclaims valuable substances from the filtrate and returns them to the body fluids; active transport | 14 | |
| 3849616707 | secretion | other substances, such as toxins and excess ions, are extracted from body fluids and added to the contents of the excretory tubule; active transport | 15 | |
| 3849642805 | excretion | altered filtrate (urine) leaves the system and the body | 16 | |
| 3849652392 | protonephridia | form a network of dead-end tubules; the tubules which are connected to external openings, branch throughout the flatworm body which lacks a coelom (body cavity); drawn by beating cilia, interstitial fluid filters through the membrane where cap cell and tubule cell interlock (flame bulb) then the filtrate empties into the external environemnt | 17 | |
| 3849667097 | metanephridia | excretory organs that collect fluid directly from the coelom; a ciliated funnel surrounds the internal opening of each metanephridium , and as cilia beat fluid is drawn into a collecting tubule which includes a storage bladder that opens to the outside | 18 | |
| 3849685273 | malpighian tubules | remove nitrogenous wastes and also function in osmoregulation; extend from dead-end tips immersed in hemolymph to openings into the digestive tracts and transport epithelium that lines the tubules secretes certain solutes, including nitrogenous wastes from hemolymph into lumen of the tubule | 19 | |
| 3849702938 | kidneys | pair of organs each about 10 cm in length, as well as organs for transporting and storing urine | 20 | |
| 3849705140 | ureter | urine produced by each kidney exits through this duct | 21 | |
| 3849707919 | urinary bladder | the two ureters drain into this common sac | 22 | |
| 3849709432 | urethra | urine is expelled from the bladder through this tube | 23 | |
| 3849712942 | kidney structure | outer renal cortex, and an inner renal medulla; both regions supplied with blood by a renal artery and drained by a renal vein, within cortex and medulla lie tightly packed excretory tubules and associated blood vessels |  | 24 |
| 3849727009 | renal pelvis | where remaining fluid leaves excretory tubules as urine and is then collected and exits kidney via ureter | 25 | |
| 3849731306 | nephrons | functional units of of the vertebrate kidney | 26 | |
| 3849734006 | cortical nephrons | 85% of nephrons in human kidney which reach only a short distance into the medulla | 27 | |
| 3849739386 | juxtamedullary nephrons | extend deep into the medulla; essential for production of urine that is hyperosmotic to body fluids, a key adaptation for water conservation in mammals | 28 | |
| 3849747661 | glomerulus | ball of capillaries | 29 | |
| 3849750614 | bowman's capsule | blind end of the tubule forms this cup-shaped swelling which surrounds the glomerulus | 30 | |
| 3849771277 | afferent arteriole | supply blood to nephrons; offshoot of the renal artery that branches and forms the capillaries of the glomerulus | 31 | |
| 3853611398 | efferent arteriole | capillaries converge into these as they leave the glomerulus | 32 | |
| 3853616944 | peritubular capillaries | branches of efferent arterioles; they surround the proximal and distal tubules | 33 | |
| 3853620122 | vasa recta | hairpin-shaped capillaries that serve the renal medulla, including the long loop of henle of juxtamedullary nephrons | 34 | |
| 3853641585 | filtrate's pathway through kidney | 1. proximal tubule 2. descending limb of the loop of henle 3. ascending limb of the loop of henle 4. distal tubule 5. collecting duct | 35 | |
| 3853652720 | aquaporin | proteins that form water channels that make the transport epithelium freely permeable to water | 36 | |
| 3853659983 | ascending vs. descending limbs of the loop of henle | descending: channels to allow water to flow out through osmosis; impermeable to salts and other small solutes ascending: impermeable to water, but allows salts and other small solutes to flow out through active and passive transport | 37 | |
| 3853713271 | collecting duct | as filtrate passes through the transport epithelium here, hormonal control of permeability and transport determines extent to which urine becomes concentrated | 38 | |
| 3853721705 | current multiplier systems | countercurrent systems which expend energy to create concentration gradients; the system involving the loop of henle maintains a high salt concentration in the interior of the kidney, enabling kidney to form concentrated urine | 39 | |
| 3853735885 | ADH | anti-diuretic hormone or vasopressin; osmoreceptor cells in the hypothalamus monitor the osmolarity of blood and regulate the release of ASH from the posterior pituitary | 40 | |
| 3853743619 | ADH response pathway | 1. ADH binds to membrane receptor 2. receptor triggers signal transduction 3. vesicles with aquaporin water channels are inserted into membrane lining lumen of collecting duct 4. aquaporin channels enhance reabsorption of water from collecting duct into interstitial fluid | 41 | |
| 3853771552 | diuresis | high level of urine production | 42 | |
| 3853777313 | renin-angiotensin aldosterone system | RAAS; second regulatory mechanism that helps maintain homeostasis by acting on the kidneys | 43 | |
| 3853803061 | juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA) | specialized tissue consisting of cells of and around the afferent arteriole, which supplies blood to the glomerulus | 44 | |
| 3853812861 | release of enzyme renin | when blood pressure or volume drops in the afferent arteriole the JGA releases this enzyme; it then goes on to initiate a sequence of steps that cleave a plasma protein called angiotensinogen ultimately yielding a peptide called angiotensin II | 45 | |
| 3853847530 | angiotensin II | functions as a hormone, it raises blood pressure by constricting arterioles which decreases blood flow to capillaries in the kidney and elsewhere; also stimulates the adrenal gland to release aldosterone | 46 | |
| 3853852310 | aldosterone | causes nephrons' distal tubules and collecting duct to reabsorb more Na+ and water, increasing blood pressure and volume | 47 | |
| 3853882953 | ADH vs RAAS response | release of ADH is a response to an increase in blood osmolarity as when body is dehydrated from excessive water loss/inadequate water intake; excessive loss of both salt and body fluids will reduce blood volume without increasing osmolarity which will not affect ADH release but RAAS will respond by increasing water and Na+ reabsorption | 48 | |
| 3853915379 | atrial natriuretic peptide | ANP opposes RAAS; walls of atria of the heart release ANP in response to to an increase in blood volume and pressure and ANP inhibits the release of renin from the JGA, inhibits NaCl reabsorption by the collecting ducts and reduces aldosterone release from adrenal glands which lower BP and blood volume | 49 |
