Test Preparation for the CLEP Western Civilization 1 Exam
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| 8521720960 | The Fertile Crescent | An area of river valleys in the Near East where conditions are optimum for crop production. | 0 | |
| 8521720961 | The Paleolithic Age (Old Stone Age) | The age in which humans lived as nomads in small communities, hunting and gathering fruits for food and using fire and crude stone implements. | 1 | |
| 8521720962 | The Neolithic Age (New Stone Age) | The age in which stone tools were refined, animals were domesticated, and agriculture was developed as people transitioned from a nomadic to a more settled way of life. | 2 | |
| 8521720963 | The Bronze Age | The age in which cities were developed, and tools were increasingly made out of metal alloys rather than stone. Irrigation and writing began to be developed during this time. | 3 | |
| 8521720964 | Sumer (Mesopotamia) | The area within the Tigris-Euphrates river valley. | 4 | |
| 8521720965 | Akkadians | A semi-nomadic people, who spoke a Semitic language. Migrated from the deserts west of Mesopotamia and settled in the Tigris-Euphrates valley during the 4th millennium B.C.E. | 5 | |
| 8521720966 | King Sargon | An Akkadian king (2371-2316 B.C.E., approximate) who led the Akkadians in conquering Sumerian city-states. Established an empire that unified Mesopotamia and reached beyond it into the Iranian plateau and as far west as Lebanon. His dynasty ruled Akkad and Sumer for about 200 years. | 6 | |
| 8521720967 | The Third Dynasty of Ur | Around 2100 B.C.E., the Sumerian city of Ur rose up in revolt against the Akkadian rule. The attained control of Mesopotamia and ruled for about 100 years. | 7 | |
| 8521720968 | Amorites | Re-unified Mesopotamia, and established their capital at Babylon, on the Euphrates. The Amorites (Old Babylonian Dynasty) ruled for about 300 years, from around 1900-1600 B.C.E. | 8 | |
| 8521720969 | Hammurabi | (1792-1750 B.C.E., approximate) The greatest king of the Old Babylonian Dynasty. Famous for his law code. Claimed to be a representative of the gods. | 9 | |
| 8521720970 | Hammurabi's Code | A law code that attempted to stabilize the hierarchical society. Presented like a pyramid: the slaves at the bottom, freemen such as peasants and merchants next, warrior aristocracy and priesthood, and the king at the top. Known for, "An eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth." Dealt with legislation regarding the family, ownership of land, and commercial transactions. | 10 | |
| 8521720971 | Hittites | From Anatolia (Asia Minor). Attacked the Old Babylonian Empire around 1600 B.C.E. and plundered them. | 11 | |
| 8521720972 | Kassites | From the region that is now Iran. Attacked the Old Babylonian Empire around 1600 B.C.E. and established themselves as rulers for 300 years. | 12 | |
| 8521720973 | Hurrians | Established the kingdom of Mitanni in the upper Tigris-Euphrates valley around 1500 B.C.E. which lasted for 100 years, until they were conquered by the Hittites. | 13 | |
| 8521720974 | Cuneiform | The earliest form of writing, made by wedge-shaped marks impressed on clay tables using a stylus. Initially pictographs (representing objects), but later included ideograms (representing ideas). Began around 3000 B.C.E. | 14 | |
| 8521720975 | Ziggurats | Multi-level, pyramid-like constructions by the people of Mesopotamia. Demonstrate practical engineering skills. | 15 | |
| 8521720976 | Gilgamesh | A Sumerian epic poem inscribed around 2000 B.C.E. on twelve cuneiform tablets. Describes the quest of the hero Gilgamesh, king of Uruk, in search of immortality. Includes an account of a great flood. | 16 | |
| 8521720977 | Enuma Elish | A Sumerian epic poem describing the story of creation. | 17 | |
| 8521720978 | The Egyptian Archaic Period | The first two dynasties of Egypt governed from about 3100-2700 B.C.E. Unified the Nile Valley. Under centralized government, the economy was carefully planned and agriculture was efficient. | 18 | |
| 8521720979 | The Old Kingdom | The Old Kingdom in Egypt lasted from about 2700-2200 B.C.E., during the 3rd to the 6th dynasties, when the power of the pharaohs was supreme. Pharaohs were viewed as gods. The greatest pyramids were constructed at this time, particularly during the 4th dynasty. The belief in an afterlife for the pharaohs led to the practice of embalming, or mummification. | 19 | |
| 8521720980 | The First Intermediate Period | From about 2200-2050 B.C.E., the pharaohs in Egypt failed to assert their power effectively, and in this way the nobles gained control of the government. The decentralization of power led to civil wars between the nobles, or "nomarchs," and to the lack of coordination in agriculture which resulted in widespread famine. | 20 | |
| 8521720981 | The Middle Kingdom | From about 2050-1700 B.C.E., centralized government was restored in Egypt under the 11th and 12th dynasties. However, the period of stability ended when foreigners, known as the Hyksos, invaded the Nile Delta and conquered the Egyptian army. | 21 | |
| 8521720982 | The Second Intermediate Period | The Hyksos people dominated Egypt from about 1700-1550 B.C.E. They were expelled by a nobleman named Ahmose, who founded the 18th dynasty and began the era known as the New Kingdom. | 22 | |
| 8521720983 | The New Kingdom | From about 1550-1100 B.C.E., under the 18th to 20th dynasties, the Egyptian pharaohs reasserted their power. Expanded into the Levant and Anatolia, and up the Nile River into Africa and across the Sinai peninsula. Dominated the eastern shoreline of the Mediterranean, and came into conflict there with the Hittites, who claimed the same territory. | 23 | |
| 8521720984 | Megiddo | Location of a battle (1457 B.C.E.) between the Egyptians and the Hittites. So many battles were fought over the centuries in this location that it became immortalized in the Christian Bible as the apocalyptic battlefield of "Armageddon". | 24 | |
| 8521720985 | The Amarna Period | Amenhotep IV (1375-1358 B.C.E., approximate), later called Akhenaton, established a religion in Egypt centered around the sun-god Aton. He suppressed the worship of all other gods, but his reforms were resisted. After his death, the pantheistic religious traditions of Egypt were resumed. During this period art took on a more dynamic and naturalistic quality. | 25 | |
| 8521720986 | Hieroglyphics | A form of pictograph writing used in religious architecture, official documentation and archival purposes. May have predated Cuneiform. | 26 | |
| 8521720987 | Papyrus | Paper made from reeds that grew along the Nile, and used by the Egyptians for writing. | 27 | |
| 8521720988 | Minoans | A people who lived on the Island of Crete. Named for King Minos of that region, a name found in Greek mythology. They had a strong maritime empire and were generally peaceful and prosperous. However, natural disasters such as a volcanic eruption in 1627 B.C.E. soon annihilated most of their culture, and they were finished off around 1375 B.C.E. by Mycenaean peoples. | 28 | |
| 8521720989 | Mycenaeans | The earliest Greek peoples. They were at the height of their prosperity from about 1400 to 1200 B.C.E. Mycenae was their largest city center. By 1150 B.C.E. they had been devastated by the Sea Peoples. | 29 | |
| 8521720990 | The Iliad | Homer's epic poem describing the legendary war between Mycenae and Troy. | 30 | |
| 8521720991 | Phoenicians | Canaanites who spoke a Semitic language. They are known for having adapted the alphabet into a more usable form. First settling the island of Cyprus, they ventured out into the western Mediterranean. | 31 | |
| 8521720992 | Carthage | The most important of the Phoenician colonies, which eventually became the center of a powerful empire that threatened Rome during the 3rd century, B.C.E. | 32 | |
| 8521720993 | Assyrians | Came from northern Mesopotamia to conquer the entire Near East from the 8th to 7th centuries B.C.E. Used the practice of deportation to assimilate unruly subjects into their culture. Their capital at Ninevah on the Tigris river was conquered in 612 B.C.E. by the Chaldeans (Neo-Babylonians). | 33 | |
| 8521720994 | Chaldeans (Neo-Babylonians) | An empire that arose late in the 7th century B.C.E. These peoples also deported rebellious populations, but were less brutal than the Assyrians. Conquered Jerusalem and brought the Hebrew people to Babylon. Fell in 539 B.C.E. to Cyrus the Great of Persia. | 34 | |
| 8521720995 | Persian Empire (Achaemenid Empire) | Founded by Cyrus the Great (559-530 B.C.E.), who led the small Achaemenid kingdom in a revolt against Media, the empire that ruled it in 550 B.C.E. Annexed Anatolia, and conquered the Chaldean kingdom, including Syria and Palestine. | 35 | |
| 8521720996 | Cyrus the Great | (559-530 B.C.E.) King of Persia. Known for showing moderation in his treatment of the vanquished nations and his tolerance for the subcultures and religions of his people. Allowed the exiled Jews to return to Jerusalem. | 36 | |
| 8521720997 | Zoroaster (Zarathustra) | The Persians, initially polytheists, began to follow this prophet around 600 B.C.E. He taught that the god Ahura Mazda represented good and light, and was in a cosmic struggle versus evil and darkness, represented by the god Ahriman. | 37 | |
| 8521720998 | Mycenaean Bronze Age | (2300-1100 B.C.E., approximate) The Bronze Age of the first Greeks, who first migrated into the Balkans around 2300 B.C.E. Mycenaean centers included Mycenae, Tiryns, Pylos, and Athens. Known for its beehive-shaped royal tombs. Conquered the Minoans on Crete and sacked Troy in Anatolia. Were destroyed in 1100 B.C.E. by the Sea Peoples, and the mainland was overrun by the Dorians, who spoke a different dialect of Greek. | 38 | |
| 8521720999 | The Ancient Greek Dark Age | (1100-800 B.C.E., approximate) The Dorian Greeks were less culturally advanced than their Mycenaean predecessors, who fled to Anatolia where they established Greek culture in the region called Ionia. During this time, writing was lost. | 39 | |
| 8521721000 | The Ancient Greek Archaic Period | (800-500 B.C.E., approximate) Greek culture revived between about 800 and 750 B.C.E. As a result of rapid population growth and economic change, the polis, or city-state, developed as a form of local government. Lots of fighting between neighboring poleis prevented the unification of the Greeks. | 40 | |
| 8521721001 | Magna Graecia | "Great Greece," Latin name given to the Greeks by the Romans. | 41 | |
| 8521721002 | Hoplites | Greek citizen-soldiers who provided their own armor and weaponry. | 42 | |
| 8521721003 | Phalanxes | Massive units of hoplites, or Greek citizen-soldiers. | 43 | |
| 8521721004 | Tyrant | An individual who received absolute power in order to restore order to a Greek polis. A temporary measure. | 44 | |
| 8521721005 | Sparta | A polis located in the Peloponnesus. Came to dominate the peninsula after two wars against its neighbor, Messenia (735-715 B.C.E. and 650-620 B.C.E.). Known for a highly regimented and militaristic society. Ruled by two kings of limited authority who shared power with a Council of Elders (28 men, age 60 or older) and an Assembly (all male citizens over age 30). | 45 | |
| 8521721006 | Spartiates | Citizens of Sparta. | 46 | |
| 8521721007 | Helots | The subjects of Sparta; peoples of the nations they conquered. | 47 | |
| 8521721008 | Perioikoi | A marginalized class of non-citizen merchants in Sparta. | 48 | |
| 8521721009 | The Peloponnesian League | To keep order within the polis and protect themselves from outside threats, Spartans formed this system of alliances, which was joined by nearly all of the poleis in the Peloponnesus. | 49 | |
| 8521721010 | Phratries | Brotherhoods into which the people of Athens were divided. | 50 | |
| 8521721011 | Areopagus | A council of wealthy Athenian aristocrats who ruled the phratries. | 51 | |
| 8521721012 | Archons | 9 of these magistrates were annually elected to guide the administration of the Athenian polis, and became members of the Aeropagus once their term expired. | 52 | |
| 8521721013 | Cylon | An Athenian noble who tried to create order by establishing himself as a tyrant in 632 B.C.E. He was defeated by his aristocratic rivals. | 53 | |
| 8521721014 | Draco | An Athenian tyrant temporarily elected in 621 B.C.E. to establish a law code. | 54 | |
| 8521721015 | Solon | An Athenian archon elected to institute laws to help with the social and economic instability in Athens in 594 B.C.E. Known for the constitution he created. | 55 | |
| 8521721016 | The Boule | An Athenian council made up of 400 members, instituted by Solon. | 56 | |
| 8521721017 | The Ekklesia | An Athenian general assembly instituted by Solon. | 57 | |
| 8521721018 | Peisistratus | An Athenian nobleman who seized power during Solon's reign, ruling from 546-527 B.C.E. He was a benevolent dictator who funded public works and instituting new religious festivals. | 58 | |
| 8521721019 | Agora | "Marketplace" where the Boule met. | 59 | |
| 8521721020 | Cleisthenes | Tyrant of Athens around 508 B.C.E. Replaced the phrarites with the demes, or townships. Changed the four tribes of Athens to ten tribes that were made up of the demes. Replaced the Council of 400 with a Council of 500, which was made up of fifty elected officials from each tribe. | 60 | |
| 8521721021 | Ostracism | A practice of the Athenians to send an individual into exile for ten years if they were determined to be a potential political threat. | 61 | |
| 8521721022 | The Delian League | A naval alliance founded in 478 B.C.E. on the isle of Delos. Included well over one hundred poleis. Most of the ships were provided by the Athenians. Eventually transformed into the Athenian Empire. | 62 | |
| 8521721023 | Pericles | (495-429 B.C.E., approximate.) An Athenian statesman whose legislation helped make Athens a democracy. Issued the construction of the Parthenon, a temple to Athena on the Acropolis. | 63 | |
| 8521721024 | The Peloponnesian War | (431-404 B.C.E.) Sparta hoped to break the power of Athens and gain absolute rule of the divided Greek empire. Spartans besieged Athens for many years, and finally an epidemic within the city killed many Athenian people, including Pericles. Without his leadership, Athens lacked stability. Finally, in 404 B.C.E., they surrendered. | 64 | |
| 8521721025 | Hesiod | (c. 700 B.C.E.) Author of "Work and Days", which describes the hard life of the small farmer, and of the "Theogony", which describes the births of the gods and their legends. | 65 | |
| 8521721026 | Archilochus | (7th century B.C.E.) a famous Greek lyricist who pioneered the new poetic form. | 66 | |
| 8521721027 | Pindar | (518-438 B.C.E.) a Greek who wrote odes of victory for athletic contests. | 67 | |
| 8521721028 | Sappho of Lesbos | (7th century B.C.E.) a Greek who wrote love poems describing her own feelings of attraction for other women. | 68 | |
| 8521721029 | Aeschylus | (525-456 B.C.E., approximate) An Ancient Greek tragedian. His plays were profoundly moral and religious, focusing on the vice of hubris, or pride, by which individuals call down nemesis, or divine punishment, on themselves. He used this theme in "The Persians", "Prometheus Bound", and the "Oresteia" trilogy. | 69 | |
| 8521721030 | Sophocles | (496-406 B.C.E.) An Ancient Greek tragedian. His works seemed motivated by religious and moral concerns, expressing deep sorrow at the plight of human beings, who are born into a world of suffering and ignorance. He wrote the plays of "Oedipus" and "Antigone", among other surviving works. | 70 | |
| 8521721031 | Euripides | (480-406 B.C.E.) An Ancient Greek tragedian. He demonstrated great psychological sophistication in the portrayal of characters. His play "Medea", had an unconventional ending that didn't appeal to audiences. | 71 | |
| 8521721032 | Aristophanes | (450-385 B.C.E., approximate) Used comedy to ridicule his fellow Athenians. He lived during the Peloponnesian War and wrote several plays such as "Acharnians" and "Lysistrata" to demonstrate the stupidity of the war. He poked fun at his contemporary Euripides in "The Frogs" and at the philosopher Socrates in "The Clouds." | 72 | |
| 8521721033 | Herodotus | (484-425 B.C.E., approximate) An Ionian Greek who is known as the "Father of History". Wrote an account of the Persian Wars. He was the first to divide civilization between East and West, and to identify the Greeks as representatives of a distinctive Western civilization. | 73 | |
| 8521721034 | Thucydides | (460-400 B.C.E., approximate) An Athenian general who lost his command early on in the Peloponnesian War, went on to write an account of it and is known as one of the great historians. | 74 | |
| 8521721035 | Thales of Miletus | (c. 600 B.C.E.) A Pre-Socratic philosopher from Ionia, who established a long running debate in physics by attempting to identify the most basic substance that constituted all physical objects. | 75 | |
| 8521721036 | Heraclitus | (c. 500 B.C.E.) A Pre-Socratic philosopher who believed that the prime substance that constitutes all other substances is fire. He is remembered for his famous statement that one cannot step into the same river twice. | 76 | |
| 8521721037 | Empedocles | (c. 450 B.C.E.) A Pre-Socratic philosopher who brought forth a theory of four basic elements: earth, water, air, and fire. His theory remained the basic orthodoxy of western science until modern times. | 77 | |
| 8521721038 | Democritus | (c. 400 B.C.E.) A Pre-Socratic philosopher who theorized that physical objects were made up of atoms. | 78 | |
| 8521721039 | Pythagoras | (c. 530 B.C.E.) believed that all reality could be described in terms of mathematical relationships. | 79 | |
| 8521721040 | Hippocrates of Cos | (460-377 B.C.E., approximate) Known as the "Father of Medicine". Inspired the code of medical ethics known as the Hippocratic Oath. He stressed observation and experimentation, described diseases which detailed symptoms, and emphasized the importance of hygiene and diet to maintain good health. | 80 | |
| 8521721041 | Sophists | 5th century B.C.E. Ancient Greek itinerant teachers. | 81 | |
| 8521721042 | Socrates | (469-399 B.C.E.) Although he was mistaken for a Sophist, he differed from them in several ways. He did not charge tuition. He focused on ethics. He wrote no books, so his thoughts were written down by one of his students, Plato. | 82 | |
| 8521721043 | Plato | Wrote the "Dialogues" and strove to preserve the legacy of his teacher, Socrates. Founded a school in Athens called the Academy. The core of his philosophy was his "Theory of Ideas" (or "Forms"). He argued that there is a spiritual world that exists beyond the material world of sense-perception. | 83 | |
| 8521721044 | Aristotle | (384-322 B.C.E.) Plato's most gifted pupil, who founded his own school in Athens called the Lyceum. Differently from Plato, he emphasized the primacy of physical objects rather than abstract principles. | 84 | |
| 8521721045 | Philip of Macedon | Invaded Greece in 338 B.C.E. and established unity after winning the battle of Chaeronea. He organized the polei intoan alliance known as the League of Corinth. | 85 | |
| 8521721046 | Alexander the Great | (?-323 B.C.E.) The son of Philip of Macedon, who inherited his empire. He overthrew the Persians and enlarged the kingdom, and had created the largest empire the world had ever seen by the age of 33. | 86 | |
| 8521721047 | Eratosthenes | (276-196 B.C.E.) Greek thinker who accurately calculated the circumference of the earth. | 87 | |
| 8521721048 | Aristarchus | (310-250 B.C.E.) Greek thinker who postulated a heliocentric theory. | 88 | |
| 8521721049 | Hipparchus | (190-120 B.C.E.) Greek thinker who developed the astrolabe, a device for making accurate observations of celestial bodies. | 89 | |
| 8521721050 | Euclid | (c. 300 B.C.E.) Greek mathematician who established a collection of geometrical theorems in his book the "Elements." | 90 | |
| 8521721051 | Archimedes of Syracuse | (287-212 B.C.E.) Greek thinker who calculated the value of pi. Famed for, "Give me a lever long enough and a place to stand, and I will move the world." | 91 | |
| 8521721052 | Epicurus | (341-263 B.C.E.) Greek philosopher who taught that the good life consists of the pursuit of pleasure. | 92 | |
| 8521721053 | Zeno of Citium | (335-263 B.C.E.) Greek philosopher who urged the complete suppression of desire, so that a state of enlightened apathy would blunt the psychological impact of misfortunes. | 93 | |
| 8521721054 | Etruscans | The kings of Etruria governed the early Romans, until Romans rebelled and drove them out in 509 B.C.E. | 94 | |
| 8521721055 | Res Publica | A new form of government, "republic", instituted by Romans, who rejected the institution of kingship. | 95 | |
| 8521721056 | The First Punic War | (264-241 B.C.E.) A conflict between the Romans and the Carthaginians (or Phoenicians), to decide who would control the Mediterranean. Sicily was given to Rome. | 96 | |
| 8521721057 | The Second Punic War | (218-201 B.C.E.) A conflict between the Romans and the Carthaginians which began in Spain and spread to Italy. Hannibal, general of the Carthaginian army, could not conquer the Romans, who were under the leadership of general Fabian. Fabian refused to fight Hannibal's army in a pitched battle, but harassed his supply lines. This war ended when the Romans invaded North Africa under Scipio the Elder and defeated the Carthaginians at the Battle of Zama. | 97 | |
| 8521721058 | The Third Punic War | (149-146 B.C.E.) A conflict between the Romans and Carthaginians instigated by the Roman statesman, Cato the Elder. Carthage was soon reduced to ruins by Scipio the Younger. | 98 | |
| 8521721059 | The Social War | (90-88 B.C.E.) A conflict between Rome and its allies, who seceded because the Senate refused to grant their demand for status as full citizens. The Senate finally conceded when threatened by a massive uprising in the eastern provinces led by Mithridates, King of Pontus in Anatolia. | 99 | |
| 8521721060 | The First Triumvirate | An alliance between Roman leaders Pompey, Crassus, and Julius Caesar, formed to oppose the Senate, which thwarted their designs for personal expansion. It was upset when Crassus died in 53 B.C.E. and the other two could not agree on how to divide up the spheres of influence. The situation exploded into civil war, and Caesar defeated Pompey in Greece in 48 B.C.E. | 100 | |
| 8521721061 | The Second Triumvirate | An alliance between Marc Antony, Lepidus, and Octavian, formed to dominate affairs in Rome. Eventually, Octavian and Antony squeezed Lepidus out, and fought each other for supremacy. Octavian defeated Marc Antony in 31 B.C.E. | 101 | |
| 8521721062 | Pax Romana | A period of peace in Rome of about 200 years. | 102 | |
| 8521721063 | Ennuis | (239-169 B.C.E.) The earliest Roman poet, who presented the history of Rome in an epic called the "Annales". | 103 | |
| 8521721064 | Catullus | (85-54 B.C.E.) Ancient Roman poet who wrote passionate love lyrics about his unfaithful mistress. | 104 | |
| 8521721065 | Lucretius | (96-55 B.C.E.) Ancient Roman poet who described the Epicurean world view in his philosophical poem "On the Nature of Things." | 105 | |
| 8521721066 | Plautus | (254-184 B.C.E.) Ancient Roman comedic dramatist. | 106 | |
| 8521721067 | Terence | (190-159 B.C.E.) Ancient Roman comedic dramatist, whose works influenced generations of later playwrights, including Shakespeare. | 107 | |
| 8521721068 | Marcus Tullius Cicero | (106-43 B.C.E.) The most accomplished writer of Latin prose, a senator and lawyer, and a Stoic. He wrote diatribes against Marc Antony called the "Philippics", and was executed for his outspoken opposition. | 108 | |
| 8521721069 | Virgil | (70-19 B.C.E.) The most famous poet of Augustus Caesar's reign, who wrote the "Aeneid", modeled after Homer's epics. | 109 | |
| 8521721070 | Horace | (65-8 B.C.E.) A lyricist during Augustus Caesar's reign. | 110 | |
| 8521721071 | Ovid | (43 B.C.E.-17 C.E.) Writer of "Metamorphoses" and "On the Art of Love". | 111 | |
| 8521721072 | Livy | (59 B.C.E.-17 C.E.) The greatest prose author of the Roman Golden Age, a historian. | 112 | |
| 8521721073 | Apuleius | (125-200 C.E.) Philosopher and writer of the first Latin novel, "The Golden Ass." | 113 | |
| 8521721074 | Galen | (129-199) Ancient Roman thinker who provided a systematic theory of medicine. | 114 | |
| 8521721075 | Ptolemy | (100-170) Ancient Roman thinker who wrote a book on astronomy known as the "Almagest", which offered mathematical proofs to support the geocentric theory. | 115 | |
| 8521721076 | The Twelve Tables | (c. 450 B.C.E.) A sophisticated body of Roman law. | 116 | |
| 8521721077 | Pontifex Maximus | The office of chief priest. | 117 | |
| 8521721078 | The Edict of Milan | Issued by Constantine in 313, this policy reversed the persecution of Christians. | 118 | |
| 8521721079 | The Council of Nicaea | (325) Convened by Constantine in order to settle the dispute of the nature of the relationship between Christ and the Father. The council established the Nicene Creed. | 119 | |
| 8521721080 | The Council of Ephesus | (431) A general council that defined the position that Jesus has two natures which are joined in a single person. | 120 | |
| 8521721081 | The Council of Chalcedon | (451) A general council that condemned the teaching of Monophysitism, which holds that Jesus only has one nature. (Divine, but not human.) | 121 | |
| 8521721082 | Hagia Sophia | The "Church of Holy Wisdom", a cathedral in Constantinople and an icon of the Byzantine Empire. | 122 | |
| 8521721083 | Corpus Juris Civilis | "Body of Civil Law", the Emperor Justinian's law code that put many centuries of Roman legal precepts into an orderly system. It served as a law code for the Byzantine Empire until the 9th century. | 123 | |
| 8521721084 | Charles Martel | (688-741) Founder of the Frankish Carolingian dynasty. Held the office of Mayor of the Palace and used it to control the Merovingian kingdom. Led the Frankish defense against Muslim raiders and defeated them at the Battle of Tours. This event prevented Islam from establishing itself beyond Spain. | 124 | |
| 8521721085 | Pepin the Short | (714-768) Charles Martel's son, and the first Carolingian king. He was not satisfied to be Mayor of the Palace, so he deposed the Merovingian king and asked the pope to legitimize his power. The pope did so, in exchange for a portion of Lombardy land which became the Papal States. | 125 | |
| 8521721086 | Charlemagne | (768-814) Son of Pepin the Short, who greatly expanded the Carolingian dynasty. On Christmas day, year 800, he was crowned Roman Emperor by the pope. He founded schools to train clergy, regulated monastic practice, and gathered together the finest scholars from all over western Europe to his court at Aachen, which became an international center of learning. Commissioned accurate copies of the Vulgate Bible in a script is known as the Carolingian minuscule. | 126 | |
| 8521721087 | Louis the Pious | (814-840) Son of Charlemagne, who was unable to keep the empire intact. His sons fought over their shares of the realm. | 127 | |
| 8521721088 | Treaty of Verdun | (843) An agreement between the sons of Louis the Pious which divided the realm into three parts. The western part to Charles the Bald, the central part and imperial title to Lothair, and the eastern part to Louis the German. | 128 | |
| 8521721089 | Treaty of Mersen | (870) Formalized the boundaries outlined in the Treaty of Verdun. These boundaries roughly established the borders of the modern European states of France and Germany. Disagreements of the division of the middle kingdom, Alsace-Lorraine, were a cause of friction between France and Germany as late as the 20th century. | 129 | |
| 8521721090 | Iconoclasm | A dispute in the Greek Church over the veneration of icons, which was condemned by the Byzantine emperor Leo III as idolatry. The papacy supported the use of icons in devotions and condemned the imperial decrees, which were finally reversed in 843 by Byzantine empress Theodora II. | 130 | |
| 8521721091 | The Filioque Controversy | A dispute in the church over a clause added to the Nicene Creed, stating that the Holy Spirit proceeds not only from the Father but also from the Son, the person of Jesus Christ. This theological difference, coupled with centuries of antagonism over the question of papal supremacy, resulted in a schism between the Greek church and the Latin church. | 131 | |
| 8521721092 | Fief | A land grant made by a lord to a lower member of the nobility called a vassal. The lord and vassal entered into a contractual agreement with obligations on both sides. In addition to the land grant, the lord promised to protect his vassal from enemies. The vassal swore oaths of homage and fealty and agreed to provide military service for his lord, serve in his lord's court of law, and work the land. If the fief was large enough, a vassal could become lord over his own vassals. | 132 | |
| 8521721093 | Manor | The same as a fief, but from an economic point of view. Derived from the large agricultural estates of the Roman Empire. Essentially a self sufficient economic unit. The laborers of the land, called serfs, were not free men. | 133 | |
| 8521721094 | Merchant Guilds | Merchants who banded together in caravans for safer travel, which was the beginning of corporations. By joining forces, merchants were able to set prices, ensure quality control, and help each other in legal disputes. | 134 | |
| 8521721095 | The Investiture Controversy | The Holy Roman Emperors relied on churchmen to perform political functions for them, and they regularly appointed bishops to key offices. Gregory VII's demand that they end this practice faced the Emperor Henry IV with a crisis. He responded in 1076 by convening a council at Worms to depose Gregory VII, who responded with excommunication. Henry IV's nobles required him to seek absolution or abdicate, which led Henry IV to go to the pope's winter come at Canossa, where he stood outside in the snow for three days before Gregory absolved him. | 135 | |
| 8521721096 | Concordat of Worms | An agreement reached in 1122 over the investiture controversy, which declared that churchmen could elect bishops, with the approval of the emperor. | 136 | |
| 8521721097 | Magna Carta | (1215) The "Great Charter", which guaranteed the protection of feudal privileges traditionally held by the English barons against royal attempts to expand the powers of the monarchy. | 137 | |
| 8521721098 | The Hundred Years' War | (1337-1453) A long series of conflicts set off by the growing power of centralized monarchies in France and England. | 138 | |
| 8521721099 | Teutonic Knights | One of several military religious orders founded during the Crusades. Received Prussia on the Baltic Sea as a fief from the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II, who charged them with the task of converting the pagans who lived there. By 1300 the Knights became the most powerful state in the Baltic region. | 139 | |
| 8521721100 | The First Crusade | (1096-) Several groups led by Frankish nobles captured Jerusalem in 1099 and massacred the inhabitants. Four feudal states, called Outremer, were created: the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, the Principality of Antioch, the County of Tripoli, and the County of Edessa. | 140 | |
| 8521721101 | The Second Crusade | In 1144 the Muslims staged a counterattack and overthrew the County of Edessa. A new crusade was proclaimed to win back Edessa, but was a failure. | 141 | |
| 8521721102 | The Third Crusade | In 1187 the Muslim warrior Saladin, Prince of Egypt, crushed the crusading armies at the Battle of Hattin and captured Jerusalem. The crusade to win back Jerusalem attracted three kings: Richard I of England, Philip II Augustus of France, and Frederick I Barbarossa of the Holy Roman Empire. This crusade, too, was a failure. Richard was the only king who stayed to fight Saladin, but was unable to do more than win back a few minor cities, including Acre where he slew over 2,000 Muslim prisoners of war. | 142 | |
| 8521721103 | Boethius | (480-525) A Roman scholar who devoted himself to the study of Plato and Aristotle and is most famous for his Neoplatonic text "The Consolation of Philosophy." He prepared a translation of Aristotelian logical texts known as the "Organon". | 143 | |
| 8521721104 | St. Thomas Aquinas | (1225-1274) A friar who wrote "Summa Theologiae", which became a favored theological work of the Catholic Church. Gave a philosophical explanation of the doctrine of transubstantiation. | 144 | |
| 8521721105 | Nominalism | A school of thought which postulated that universal concepts are merely words that are used to describe abstractions and therefore do not correspond to any substantial reality. | 145 | |
| 8521721106 | Ockham's razor | A principle of of logical economy, which requires a logical explanation for the existence of any presumed entity and thus reduces any given system to the smallest possible number of elements. | 146 | |
| 8521721107 | Peter Abelard | (1079-1142) A teacher who promoted the use of logic in his book "Sic et Non". He demonstrated how logic could be used to resolve seeming contradiction in Scripture and the Church Fathers. His teachings were condemned, but his logic was used as a scholastic method. | 147 | |
| 8521721108 | Dante Alighieri | (1265-1321) A poet and writer from Florence who wrote "The Divine Comedy" which has three parts: "Inferno", "Purgatorio", and "Paradiso". | 148 | |
| 8521721109 | Giovanni Boccaccio | (1313-1375) Florentine author of the "Decameron", a bawdy collection of stories told by a group of men and women staying the countryside in order to escape the effects of the Black Death. | 149 | |
| 8521721110 | The Black Death | (1347-1351) A plague introduced to Europe from Asia by Italian merchant ships that plied the Black Sea. The plague first struck Constantinople, and spread to Italy, through France to Spain, England, and Germany. Reduced the population of Europe by about one third. This population decline was preceded in the earlier fourteenth century by a series of crop failures, which resulted in widespread famine, the most serious of which occurred from 1315-1317. Records indicate that the number of households decreased during that time. | 150 | |
| 8521721111 | Francesco Petrarch | (1304-1374) Known as the "father of Renaissance Humanism". He advocated imitating the Latin style of the Ancients, and the attitudes they expressed. He wrote "The Secret", in which he converses with St. Augustine of Hippo. He wrote the Latin epic "Africa", a depiction of the Punic wars. | 151 | |
| 8521721112 | The Medici Family | A wealthy Florentine family that arose in the 13th century as merchants and bankers and later came to dominate politics. They were the effective rulers of Florence during the leadership of Cosimo (1389-1464) and Lorenzo the Magnificent (1449-1492). Three members of the family became popes, and two became queens of France. They suffered exile twice after the death of Lorenzo, but were able to return to power each time with the help of Spain. | 152 | |
| 8521721113 | Treaty of Lodi | (1454) Three of five major Italian powers, Florence, Milan, and Venice, organized an alliance against the other two: the Papal States and the Kingdom of Naples. | 153 | |
| 8521721114 | Niccolo Machiavelli | (1469-1527) Wrote "The Prince" as an appeal to the Medici to provide a leader that all Italians could rally around, in order to unify Italy. It can be seen as more of a drastic example of ideal government, as Machiavelli thought was needed at the time. In a later study called "The Discourses", he explored a more ideal form of government that was representative rather than despotic. | 154 | |
| 8521721115 | Pico della Mirandola | (1463-1494) Writer of "Oration on the Dignity of Man". | 155 | |
| 8521721116 | Albrecht Durer | (1471-1528) German painter who excelled in realism and who studied art and engraving in Italy and brought it back to Germany. | 156 | |
| 8521721117 | Hans Holbein the Younger | (1497-1543) A German realist painter. | 157 | |
| 8521721118 | Hieronymus Bosch | (1450-1516) A prominent Dutch painter famous for his allegorical works depicting fantastic scenes of devils tormenting people. | 158 | |
| 8521721119 | Pieter Bruegel the Elder | (1525-1569) A Dutch painter exceptional for his lively and intricate scenes of peasant life. | 159 | |
| 8521721120 | Polyphony | Music consisting of several voices singing in harmony, developed in the 12th century. | 160 | |
| 8521721121 | Desiderius Erasmus | (1466-1536) Theologian who used his classical education to acquire a deeper understanding of early Christianity. Prepared a Greek edition of the New Testament and provided a commentary and a Latin translation that corrected errors in St. Jerome's Vulgate. Wrote a satirical "Praise of Folly" to demonstrate how far the religion of Christ had strayed from its roots. He was unwilling to oppose the papacy, but hoped to reform the church from within. | 161 | |
| 8521721122 | Thomas More | (1478-1535) An English statesman who criticized English society in his satirical essay, "Utopia". | 162 | |
| 8521721123 | Johannes Reuchlin | (1455-1522) A German humanist who advocated the study of languages for a better understanding of the Scriptures. In 1509 he convinced the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I to reject the Inquisition's call to burn the Talmud. | 163 | |
| 8521721124 | Ulrich Zwingli | (1484-1531) A Swiss reformer who persuaded the town council of Zurich to reject the authority of the pope and to abolish many Catholic practices. He was killed in the Battle of Kappel in 1531. | 164 | |
| 8521721125 | John Calvin | (1509-1564) French theologian who established a theocracy in Geneva, Switzerland, and was intolerant of any who opposed his views. He wrote a systematic theology called "The Institutes of the Christian Religion" wherein he stressed the sovereignty of God and taught the doctrine of double predestination: that God has determined in advance that some will be saved, and others will be damned. | 165 | |
| 8521721126 | Huguenots | Calvinists in France. | 166 | |
| 8521721127 | John Knox | (1513-1572) A Scottish reformer who established Calvinism in Scotland, and founded the Presbyterian church. | 167 | |
| 8521721128 | Council of Trent | Convention which met three times between 1545 and 1563, and established a thorough reform of the Roman Catholic church and defined its dogmatic theological position in response to the issues raised by the Protestants.This era is known as the Catholic Reformation/The Counter Reformation. | 168 | |
| 8521721129 | Jesuits | The Society of Jesus, founded in 1534 by St. Ignatius of Loyola and approved by Paul III in 1540. The society specialized in the education of Catholics, and dedicated themselves to the conversion of Protestants through well-informed preaching. The society acquired a reputation for fanatical devotion to the papacy. | 169 | |
| 8521721130 | The Roman Inquisition | A measure taken by Paul III to revive Catholicism called the Holy Office, founded in 1542. This office was concerned primarily with monitoring newly published books for evidence of heretical theology. It published an "Index of Prohibited Books". | 170 | |
| 8521721131 | Wars of the Roses | (1455-1485) A period of civil strife in England between two notable houses, Lancaster and York, fought over control of the Kingdom. The House of Tudor emerged triumphant. | 171 | |
| 8521721132 | The Spanish Inquisition | (1478) After Spain was won back from the Muslims, monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella instituted an inquisition to establish religious unity and control dissidents. | 172 | |
| 8521721133 | Prince Henry the Navigator | (1394-1460) A Portuguese prince who gave the first major impetus to exploration by funding voyages and establishing a school for navigation at Sagres, which had an observatory. He made improvements in shipbuilding. | 173 | |
| 8521721134 | Bartholomew Diaz | Portuguese explorer who crossed the equator, sailed to the southern tip of Africa, and rounded the Cape of Good Hope in 1488. | 174 | |
| 8521721135 | Vasco da Gama | Portuguese explorer who sailed to India and back in 1497-1499, opening a trade route for spices and other luxury goods. | 175 | |
| 8521721136 | Alfonso de Albuquerque | Portuguese explorer who established Portuguese trading posts along the west coast of India, the islands of Indonesia, and at the mouth of the Persian Gulf from 1509-1515. | 176 | |
| 8521721137 | Pedo Cabral | Portuguese explorer who claimed Brazil in 1500. | 177 | |
| 8521721138 | Christopher Columbus | (1451-1504) Genoese mariner funded by Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain to find a new trade route to India. He reached the Caribbean islands (West Indies) and Central America, and thought he had reached Asia. | 178 | |
| 8521721139 | Treaty of Tordesillas | (1494) Spain and Portugal decided to prevent imperialistic rivalry by dividing the world between them. In this treaty, they agreed upon a longitude of demarcation that ran from pole to pole at an arbitrary distance in the Atlantic Ocean; Portugal could claim any land east of this line, which Spain could have any land west of it. | 179 | |
| 8521721140 | Conquistadors | Spanish adventurers or "conquerors" sent to explore the New World. | 180 | |
| 8521721141 | Hernando Cortez | Spanish conquistador who conquered the Aztec Empire in Mexico 1519-1521. | 181 | |
| 8521721142 | Francisco Pizarro | Spanish conquistador who conquered the Inca Empire in Peru 1532-1533. | 182 | |
| 8521721143 | John Cabot | Italian explorer hired by Henry VIII in 1497 to seek a direct route to Asia in the Northern hemisphere. | 183 | |
| 8521721144 | Sir Francis Drake | English explorer who landed on the west coast of North America and claimed it for Queen Elizabeth. He later served as governor of English colonies in North America and as a member of parliament. | 184 | |
| 8521721145 | Sir Walter Raleigh | Englishman who launched two failed attempt at colonization at Roanoke Island, North Carolina. | 185 | |
| 8521721146 | Jacques Cartier | (1491-1557) French explorer who sought a northwest passage to the Far East. He explored the St. Lawrence river valley. | 186 | |
| 8521721147 | Henry Hudson | An English explorer sponsored by the Dutch. | 187 | |
| 8521721148 | Francis Bacon | (1561-1626) English statesman and scientific theorist. His theoretical writings advanced the cause of science by downplaying the traditional deductive method of reasoning and advocating the inductive method | 188 | |
| 9363571606 | Invaded the Roman Empire | Ostrogoths, Visigoths, Vandals, Huns | 189 | |
| 9363589713 | Crafts guilds | regulations of production and quality | 190 | |
| 9363598641 | Paddled Horse Collar | had the greatest impact on northern European agriculture by the year 1000 C.E. | 191 | |
| 9363613430 | Factors played a part in bringing about the Hundred Years War | The English king had lands in Gascony, A French princess was the mother of an English King, Flemish towns were dependent on England for raw wool, The Capetian dynasty had come to an end. | 192 | |
| 9363632106 | A central feature of the Catholic Reformation | establishment of the new religious orders such as the Jesuits. | 193 | |
| 9363679090 | Peace of Augsburg | The principle that the religion of the ruler of a state determines the established church in that state was first adopted | 194 | |
| 9363692004 | Charles I | Between 1629 and 1639, he tried to obtain revenues by levying of ship money, income from crown lands, forced loans, the sale of monopolies. | 195 | |
| 9363721165 | Commercial Revolution in Modern Europe are associated with | increased the number of entrepreneurial capitalist, the appearance of state run trading companies, a large influx of precious metals in Europe, and a "golden age" for the Netherlands | 196 | |
| 9363752404 | Book of Courtier | 1528 Castiglione's book was a guide to refine behavior and etiquette. | 197 | |
| 9363766364 | Spanish Armada resulted in | prevented the invasion of England | 198 | |
| 9363772926 | All of the following settled in Roman Lands | Lombards, Visigoths, Ostrogoths, and Vandals | 199 | |
| 9363783019 | Augustus | "I found Rome a city of brick and left it a city of marble" | 200 | |
| 9363793651 | Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden | one of the most effective leader of the Protestant forces in the Thirty Years War. | 201 |
