This is a set of IB Psychology review cards covering studies at the Sociocultural LofA.
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| 525124984 | Cialdini et al.(1976)-in-group out-group in college football supporters (pg. 106) | Aim: The purpose of this study was to determine the rationale behind football game day attire and to establish whether organizational identification, perceived organizational prestige, and game day participation influenced clothing choice. Findings: By identifying the game day clothing habits of female college students attending Divison I-A schools throughout the United States, four factors (fashion consciousness, desire for comfort, desire for uniqueness, and spirit-seeking behavior) were found to influence game day attire. Conclusion: Football game participation was found to be the strongest predictor of football clothing choice. | |
| 525124985 | Asch's classic study---line test (1951) (pg. 120) | Aim: To investigate the extent to which people would conform to an incorrect answer. Findings: 75% of the participants agreed with the confederates' incorrect responses at least once during the trails. 32% of the participants agreed with incorrect answers in half or more of the trials. 24% did not conform to any of them. Conclusion: This study showed that people would conform to an incorrect answer. The need to "belong" (the need to be part of the group) is stronger than the desire to give the correct answer. People often possess self-doubt about their answers. | |
| 525124986 | Asch (1955) Group size influence on conformity | Aim: To investigate if group size has influence on conformity rate (and if so, to what extent). Findings: With only 1 confederate, just 3% of the participants conformed; with 2 confederates, 14%; and with 3 confederates, 32% conformed. Conclusion: Larger groups did not increase the rate of conformity. | |
| 525124987 | Tajfel et al.(1971) | Aim: The aim of Tajfel's study was to demonstrate that merely putting people into groups (categorization) is sufficient for people to discriminate in favor of their own group and against members of the group. Findings: The experiment demonstrated that inter-group discrimination is easy to put in motion. Inter group discrimination was the strategy used in making inter group choices. The second experiment also clearly demonstrated that the most important factor in making choices was maximizing the differences between the two groups. Conclusion: The theory is useful because as well as explaining the social causes of prejudice it may also be able to explain individual differences. The criticism of Tajfel's Social Identity Theory is maintained that competition was not a sufficient factor in the creation of inter-group discrimination | |
| 525124988 | Smith and Bond 1993 | Aim: Review of 31 conformity studies Finding: The percentage of incorrect responses had from 14% among Belgian students to 58% among Indian teachers in Fiji with an average of 31.2% Conclusion: Conformity was lower among participants from individualist cultures (North America, north-west Europe 25.3%) than from collectivist culture (Asia, Africa, Oceania, South America 37.1%) | |
| 525124989 | Bond and Smith 1996 | Finding: People who scored higher on Hoefstede's collectivism scale conform more than people who score lower. Conclusion: Culture can affect the rate of conformity. | |
| 525124990 | Berry 1967 | Finding: Temne people of Sierra Leone conformed significantly more than the Inuit people of Canada Conclusion: Consensus is less strongly focused in Inuit culture because the Inuit economy is based on continual hunting and gathering on a relatively individual basis. | |
| 525124991 | Matsumoto 2004 | Aim: Mentioned a book that analyzes 128 definitions of culture. Finding: Conclusion: Culture is a complex concept that is used in many different ways. | |
| 525124992 | Lonner 1995 | Conclusion: Culture can be defined as common rules that regulate interactions and behaviour in a group as well as a number of shared values and attitudes in the group. | |
| 525124993 | Hofstede 2002 | Aim: Describe culture as "mental software" which is the cultural schemas that have been internalized so that they influence thinking, emotions, and behaviour. Finding: Conclusion: The mental software is shared by member of sociocultural group. It is learned through daily interactions and by the feedback from other members of the group. | |
| 525124994 | Mead 1935 | Aim: Studied three different cultures living close to each other in New Guinea Finding: The Arapesh people were characterized by women and men having the same sensitive and non-aggressive behaviour. For the Mundugamor both men and women were unpleasant and ruthless. For the Tchambuli, women were more dominant and men were more emotional and concerned about personal appearance Conclusion: A valid indication of how society can powerfully influence gender-role development. | |
| 525124995 | Asch (1956) Unanimity influence on conformity | Aim: To investigate if unanimity would affect conformity rate. Findings: If one of the confederates disagreed, the participant was less likely to conform. Conclusion: Conformity was most likely when all the confederates agreed. | |
| 525124996 | Perrin and Spencer (1988) | Aim: To investigate if one's confidence would affect conformity rate. Findings: conformity rates were almost nil. Conclusion: When individuals feel that they are more competent to make decision with regard to a field of expertise, they are less likely to conform. | |
| 525124997 | Stang (1973) | Aim: To investigate if individual's self-esteem will affect conformity rate. Findings: Participants with high self-esteem were less likely to conform to incorrect responses. Conclusion: Because of that people's self-esteem will influence the conformity rate. | |
| 525124998 | Friend et al. (1990) | He argue that there is a bias in the interpretation of the findings from Asch's Paradigm. It should be striking to us that in the face of unanimity so many people did not conform. The question should be which factors allow people to dissent, rather than which factors influence conformity. | |
| 525124999 | Moscovici and Lage (1976) | Aim: to investigate if the minority could influence the majority. Findings: The minority was able to influence about 32% of the participants to make at least one incorrect judgement. Participants continued to give their incorrect responses even after the two confederates had left the experiment. Conclusion: When a minority maintains a consistent view, it is able to influence the majority. | |
| 525125000 | Hogg and Vaughan (1995) | Aim: To investigate how can minority opinions have big influence on the majority. Findings: Conclusion: Some of the reasons for the influence of a minority group could be: Dissenting opinions produce uncertainty and doubt. Such opinions show that alternatives exist. Consistency shows that there is a commitment to the alternative view. | |
| 525125001 | Deutsch and Gerard (1955) | Aim: To find out why people conform. Findings: Conclusion: They argued that conformity is a result of informational social influence and normative social influence. | |
| 525125002 | Cashmore and Goodnow (1986) | Aim: To investigate if culture influence the conformity rate. Findings: there was a high level of conformity among Italians. Conclusion: The conformity rate is different between cultures. | |
| 525125003 | Burgos and Dias-Perez | Aim: To investigate if culture influence the conformity rate. Findings: With regard to childrearing, Puerto Ricans valued conformity and obedience in their children. Conclusion: The culture do have the big influence the conformity. | |
| 525125004 | Tajfel (1978) | Aim: It is assumed that our need for positive self-concept will result in a bias in these inter group comparisons, so that you are more positive towards anything that your own group represents. Findings: He found that people if are casually assigned to a group- either by a flip of a coin, the drawing of a number from a hat, or by preference for a previously unknown artist-they see themselves as being similar in attitude and behavior, and a bond is formed among group members, even if they did not know each other before their assignment to the group. Conclusion: These findings support the social identity theory which states that individuals strive to improve their self-image by trying to enhance their self-esteem, based on either personal identity or various social identities. | |
| 525125005 | Moscovici (1973) | Aim: He defined social representations as the shared beliefs and explanations held by the society in which we live or the group which we belong. Conclusion: Social representations are, in a sense, cultural schemas that are fundamental to the identity of the group, and they provide a common understanding for communication within the group. | |
| 525125006 | Matsumoto 2004 | Aim: Define culture as a dynamic system of rules, explicit and inplicit, established by groups in order to ensure their survival, involving attitudes, values, beliefs, norms, and behaviours. Finding: Culture is dynamic, meaning that culture changes overtime in response to environmental and social changes. One could talk about US culture, but also the culture of an individual school. Conclusion: The group's attitudes, beliefs, values and norms are the social representation which has been internalized by its members. | |
| 525125007 | Hofstede 1973 | Finding: In middle Eastern countries, when there is a place to an agreement, they will shake hands. In Middle Eastern culture, it is a sign that the negotiation is beginning. Conclusion:Understanding cultural dimensions will help facilitate communication between cultures because it is important in international diplomacy as well as international business. | |
| 525125008 | Markus and Kitayama 1991 | Aim: Characterized the difference between US and Japanese culture by citing two of their proverbs Finding: In US, " the squeaky wheel gets the grease" and in Japan, " the nail that stands our gets pounded down Conclusion: Perceiving a boundary between the individual and the social environment is distinctly western in its cultural orientation and that non-western cultures tend towards connectedness. | |
| 525125009 | Bond 1988 | Aim: Investigation of Asian countries Finding: Asian countries have long-term orientation Conclusion: Chinese culture replaces the uncertainty-avoidance dimension with confucian work dynamism which is instead of focusing on the truth, some cultures focus on virtue. | |
| 525125010 | Hall 1966 | Different cultures have different perception of the amount of personal space that is required to be comfortable. | |
| 525125011 | Cultural Norms | Behaviour patterns that are typical of specific groups | |
| 525125012 | Cultural dimensions of behavior | The perspectives of a culture based on values and cultural norms | |
| 525125013 | Lee et al. (1977)-pg. 105 | Aim: to see if student participants would make the fundamental attribution error even when they knew that all the actors were simply playing a role. Finding: Students consistently ranked the game show host as the most intelligent, even though they knew that this person was randomly assigned tot his position and he or she had written the questions. Conclusion: Students failed to attribute the role too the person;s situation, and instead attributed the person's performance to dispositional factors. | |
| 525125014 | Miller and Ross (1975), pg 105 | Aim: to examine the role of cognitive factor in SSB Conclusion: People usually expect to succeed. When they succeed, people attribute it to their skill and ability, If people expect to succeed and do not succeed, they they feel that if is bad luck or external factors that brought about this unexpected outcome. | |
| 525125015 | Lau and Russel (1980), pg 105 | Aim: Self-serving bias in American football coaches Finding: American football coaches and players tend to credit their wins to internal factors, and their failures to external force. | |
| 525125016 | Greenberg et al. 1982 pg 105 | Aim: reason behind SSB Finding: The reason we do this is to protect our self-esteem. If we can attribute our success to dispositional factors, it boosts our self esteem, and of we can attribute our failures to factors beyond our control we can protect out self-esteem Conclusion: SSB serves as a means of self-protection | |
| 525125017 | Kashima and Triandis 1986 pg 106 | Aim: Cultural differences in SSB Finding: the Americans tended to attribute their success to ability while the Japanese tended to explain their failures in term of their lack of ability. Conclusion: Cultural differences exist in SSB | |
| 525125018 | Chandler et al 1990 pg 106 | Finding: Observed modesty bias in Japanese students | |
| 525125019 | Watkins and Regmi 1990 pg 106 | Finding: Found modesty bias in Nepalese students. | |
| 525125020 | Bond, Leung, and Wan (1982) pg 106 | Aim: Role of culture in modesty bias Finding: Chinese student who exhibited the modesty bias instead of the SSB were more popular with their peers Conclusion: Role of culture, in this case, collectivism, plays significant role in modesty bias. | |
| 525125021 | SSB (Self-serving bias) | People take credit for their successes, attributing them to dispositional factors, and dissociate themselves from their failures, attributing them to situational factors. | |
| 525125022 | Social Identity Theory | Proposed by Henri Tajfel and states that individuals strive to improve their self-image by trying to enhance their self-esteem, based on either personal identity or various social identities. | |
| 525125023 | Attribution Theory | People are more likely to explain another person's actions by pointing to dispositional factors, rather than to the situation. | |
| 525125024 | Bandura et al.(1961) | Aim: Bandura hoped that the experiments would prove that aggression can be explained, at least in part, by social learning theory. The theory of social learning would state that behavior such as aggression is learned through observing and imitating others. Findings: Bandura found that the children exposed to the aggressive model were more likely to act in physically aggressive ways than those who were not exposed to the aggressive model. For those children exposed to the aggressive model, the number of imitative physical aggressions exhibited by the boys was 38.2 and 12.7 for the girls. The results concerning gender differences strongly supported Bandura's prediction that children are more influenced by same-sex models. Conclusion: The experimenters came to the conclusion that children observing adult behavior are influenced to think that this type of behavior is acceptable thus weakening the child's aggressive inhibitions. The result of reduced aggressive inhibitions in children means that they are more likely to respond to future situations in a more aggressive manner. | |
| 525125025 | Kimball and Zabrack (1986) | Aim: Not stated in course companion. Findings: Children in Canada were found to have become significantly more aggressive two years after television was introduced to their town. Conclusion: The results from this study indicate a link between watching violent television and aggressive behavior, however this does not rule out the possibility of other explanations for aggressive behavior. | |
| 525125026 | Lynn McCall (1920) | Aim: Not stated in course companion. Findings: When restaurant customers are given a mint or sweet with their bill, the size of the tip typically increases. Conclusion: This is explained by the reciprocity principle, the social norm that we should treat others the way they treat us. | |
| 525125027 | Cialdini et al. (1975) County Youth Counselling Programs | Aim: Not stated in course companion. Findings: Cialdini et al. wanted students to agree to escort a group of young boys from a juvenile detention center to a two-hours visit to a local zoo. The number of students who agreed to this request was multiplied by three after having turned down a first more costly request, than when there was no initial larger request. This first request was to agree to volunteer at the detention center two hours a week for two years. Conclusion: The reciprocity principle explains why when a request that is sure to be turned down is followed by a less demanding request, the second request is more likely to be well received. | |
| 525125028 | Dickerson et al. (1992) | Aim: Dickerson's team wanted to see if they could get university students to conserve water in the dormitory showers through employment of the foot-in-the-door technique. Findings: Students who had signed a poster promoting water conservation were forced to think about their own water usage, and had average shower times of about 3.5 minutes. Conclusion: Getting people to make a commitment to something small often leads them to being more easily persuaded into agreeing to something larger. |
