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| 13079160998 | transformation | A change in genotype and phenotype due to the assimilation of external DNA by a cell. |  | 0 |
| 13079160999 | bacteriophage | A virus that infects bacteria; also called a phage. |  | 1 |
| 13079161000 | semiconservative model | Type of DNA replication in which the replicated double helix consists of one old strand, derived from the old molecule, and one newly made strand. |  | 2 |
| 13079161001 | origins of replication | Site where the replication of a DNA molecule begins, consisting of a specific sequence of nucleotides. |  | 3 |
| 13079161002 | replication fork | A Y-shaped region on a replicating DNA molecule where new strands are growing. |  | 4 |
| 13079161003 | DNA polymerase | An enzyme that catalyzes the formation of the DNA molecule. |  | 5 |
| 13079161004 | lagging strand | A discontinuously synthesized DNA strand that elongates by means of Okazaki fragments, each synthesized in a 5' to 3' direction away from the replication fork. |  | 6 |
| 13079161005 | leading strand | The new continuous complementary DNA strand synthesized along the template strand in the mandatory 5' to 3' direction. |  | 7 |
| 13079161006 | Okazaki fragments | Small fragments of DNA produced on the lagging strand during DNA replication, joined later by DNA ligase to form a complete strand. |  | 8 |
| 13079161007 | primase | An enzyme that joins RNA nucleotides to make the primer using the parental DNA strand as a template. |  | 9 |
| 13079161008 | Helicase | An enzyme that untwists the double helix at the replication forks, separating the two parental strands and making them available as template strands. |  | 10 |
| 13079161009 | topoisomerase | A protein that functions in DNA replication, helping to relieve strain in the double helix ahead of the replication fork. |  | 11 |
| 13079161010 | single-strand binding protein | Binds to and stabilizes single-stranded DNA until it can be used as a template |  | 12 |
| 13079161011 | nuclease | A DNA cutting enzyme that excises damaged DNA. |  | 13 |
| 13079161012 | telomeres | Repeated DNA sequences at the ends of eukaryotic chromosomes. |  | 14 |
| 13079161013 | telomerase | An enzyme that catalyzes the lengthening of telomeres in eukaryotic germ cells. |  | 15 |
| 13079161014 | Watson and Crick | Developed the double helix model of DNA. |  | 16 |
| 13079161015 | Hersey-Chase Experiment | Devised an experiment that showed that only the DNA of T2 phages enters a bacterial cell during infection. |  | 17 |
| 13079161016 | Frederick Griffith | Discovered transformation during an experiment that involved injecting mice with smooth S cells, rough R cells, heat-killed S cells, and heat-killed S cells with living R cells. |  | 18 |
| 13079161017 | McCarty, Avery, & MacLeod | Confirmed that the transforming agent in Griffith's experiment was DNA. |  | 19 |
| 13079161018 | one gene-one polypeptide hypothesis | The premise that a gene is a segment of DNA that codes for one polypeptide. |  | 20 |
| 13079161019 | transcription | Synthesis of an mRNA molecule from a DNA template. |  | 21 |
| 13079161020 | messenger RNA (mRNA) | Carries genetic message from the DNA to he protein-synthesizing machinery of the cell. |  | 22 |
| 13079161021 | Erwin Chargaff | Discovered that DNA composition varies, but the amount of adenine is always the same as thymine and the amount of cytosine is always the same as guanine. |  | 23 |
| 13079161022 | Meselson & Stahl | Determined that DNA replication is semiconservative. |  | 24 |
| 13079161023 | translation | The synthesis of a polypeptide, which occurs under the direction of mRNA. |  | 25 |
| 13079161024 | ribosomes | Complex particles that facilitate the orderly linking of amino acids into polypeptide chains. |  | 26 |
| 13079161025 | RNA processing | The modification of mRNA before it leaves the nucleus that is unique to eukaryotes. |  | 27 |
| 13079161026 | primary transcript | The initial mRNA transcript that is transcribed from a protein coding gene. Also called pre-mRNA. |  | 28 |
| 13079161027 | triplet code | Three-nucleotide long set that specifies a specific amino acid for a polypeptide chain. |  | 29 |
| 13079161028 | template strand | The DNA strand that provides the template for ordering the sequence of nucleotides in an mRNA transcript. |  | 30 |
| 13079161029 | TATA box | A promoter DNA sequence crucial in forming the transcription initiation complex. |  | 31 |
| 13079161030 | promoter | A specific nucleotide sequence in DNA that binds RNA polymerase and indicates where to start transcribing RNA. |  | 32 |
| 13079161031 | RNA polymerase | Enzyme that links together the growing chain of ribonucleotides during transcription. |  | 33 |
| 13079161032 | poly-A tail | Modified 3' end of an mRNA molecule consisting of the addition of some 50 to 250 adenine nucleotides. |  | 34 |
| 13079161033 | terminator | In prokaryotes, a special sequence of nucleotides in DNA that marks the end of a gene. |  | 35 |
| 13079161034 | 5' cap | The 5' end of a pre-mRNA molecule modified by the addition of a cap of guanine nucleotide. |  | 36 |
| 13079161035 | exons | Coding segments of eukaryotic DNA. |  | 37 |
| 13079161036 | anticodon | Specialized base triplet at one end of a tRNA molecule that recognizes a particular complementary codon on an mRNA molecule. | 38 | |
| 13079161037 | frameshift mutation | Mutation occuring when the number of nucleotides inserted or deleted is not a multiple of three, resulting in improper grouping of nucleotides into codons. | 39 | |
| 13079161038 | missense mutation | Most common type of mutation, a base pair mutation in which the new codon makes sense in that it still codes for an amino acid. | 40 | |
| 13079161039 | nonsense mutation | A mutation that changes an amino acid codon to one of three stop codons, resulting in a shorter and usually nonfunctional protein. | 41 | |
| 13079161040 | Gene Expression | process by which DNA directs synthesis of proteins | 42 | |
| 13079161041 | Transcription | -synthesis of RNA under direction of DNA -DNA serves as template for assembling complementary RNA molecule -resulting RNA molecule faithful transcript of gene's protein-building instructions -occurs in nucleus |  | 43 |
| 13079161042 | Messenger RNA (mRNA) | RNA molecule that carries genetic message from DNA to protein synthesizing machinery of cell | 44 | |
| 13079161043 | Translation | -synthesis of polypeptide -occurs under direction of mRNA -change in language-cell must translate base sequence of mRnA molecule into amino acid sequence of polypeptide -occurs in cytoplasm |  | 45 |
| 13079161044 | Ribosomes | -sites of translation -complex particles that facilitate orderly linking of amino acids into polypeptide chains | 46 | |
| 13079161045 | Primary Transcript | initial RNA transcript from any gene, including those coding for RNA that is not translated into protein | 47 | |
| 13079161046 | Triplet Code | genetic instructions for polypeptide chain written in DNA as series of non-overlapping, 3 nucleotide words | 48 | |
| 13079161047 | Template Strand | DNA strand that provides pattern/template for sequence of nucleotides in RNA transcript | 49 | |
| 13079161048 | Codons | mRNA base triplets written 5'-3' direction | 50 | |
| 13079161049 | Reading Frame | grapings w/ symbols w/ message that needs to be translated to written language | 51 | |
| 13079161050 | RNA Polymerase | -pries 2 strands of DNA apart -joins RNA nucleotides as they base pair along DNA template -assemble polynucleotides 5' -> 3' -can start chain from scratch-no primer needed |  | 52 |
| 13079161051 | Promoter | DNA sequence where RNA polymerase attaches and initiates transcription | 53 | |
| 13079161052 | Terminator | sequence that signals end of transcription in bacteria | 54 | |
| 13079161053 | Transcription Unit | stretch of DNA transcribed into RNA molecule | 55 | |
| 13079161054 | Transcription Factors | proteins that mediate binding of RNA polymerase and initiation of transcription | 56 | |
| 13079161055 | Transcription Initiation Complex | complex of transcription factors and RNA polymerase II bound to promoter | 57 | |
| 13079161056 | TATA Box | crucial promoter DNA sequence |  | 58 |
| 13079161057 | RNA Processing | enzymes in eukaryotic nucleus modify pre-mRNA in specific ways before genetic messages dispatched to cytoplasm | 59 | |
| 13079161058 | 5' Cap | modified form of guanine added onto 5' end after transcription 1. facilitates export of mature mRNA from nucleus 2. helps protect mRNA from degradation by hydrolytic enzymes 3. helps ribosomes attach to 5' end of mRNA once mRNA reaches cytoplasm | 60 | |
| 13079161059 | poly-A Tail | -50-250 more A nucleotides added to 3' end by enzyme 1. facilitates export of mature mRNA from nucleus 2. helps protect mRNA from degradation by hydrolytic enzymes 3. helps ribosomes attach to 5' end of mRNA once mRNA reaches cytoplasm | 61 | |
| 13079161060 | RNA splicing | removal of large portions of RNA molecule initially synthesized |  | 62 |
| 13079161061 | Introns | noncoding segments of nucleic acid that lie between coding regions | 63 | |
| 13079161062 | Exons | nucleotide regions that are expressed, usually translated into amino acid sequences | 64 | |
| 13079161063 | Spliceosome | interacts w/ certain sites along introns, releasing intron and joining together 2 exons that flanked intron |  | 65 |
| 13079161064 | Ribozymes | RNA molecules that function as enzymes, can b/c: 1. RNA single stranded, region of RNA molecule may base-pair w/ complementary region elsewhere in same molecule-gives molecule particular 3D structure-essential to catalytic function of ribozymes, just like in enzymatic proteins 2. some RNA bases have functional groups that may participate in catalysis 3. ability of RNA to hydrogen bond w/ other nucleic acid molecules-adds specificity to catalytic activity | 66 | |
| 13079161065 | Alternative RNA Splicing | many genes can give rise to 2+ polypeptides, depending on which segments are treated as exons during RNA processing -# different protein products > # genes | 67 | |
| 13079161066 | Domains | functional regions part of protein architecture | 68 | |
| 13079161067 | Transfer RNA (tRNA) | transfer amino acids from cytoplasmic pool of AA to ribosome | 69 | |
| 13079161068 | Anticodon | nucleotide triplet that base pairs of complementary codon of mRNA | 70 | |
| 13079161069 | Aminoacyl tRNA Synthetases | -able to bind to different tRNAs that code for specific amino acid -catalyzes covalent attachment to tRNA -> aminoacyl tRNA released from enzyme -available to deliver AA to growing polypeptide chain of ribosome | 71 | |
| 13079161070 | Wobble | flexible base pairing at codon position | 72 | |
| 13079161071 | Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) | made in nucleolus, make up ribosomal subunits | 73 | |
| 13079161072 | P Site (peptidyl-tRNA site) | holds tRNA carrying growing polypeptide chain | 74 | |
| 13079161073 | A Site (aminoacyl-tRNA site) | holds tRNA carrying next AA to be added in chain | 75 | |
| 13079161074 | E Site (exit site) | where discharged tRNAs leave ribosome | 76 | |
| 13079161075 | Release Factor | protein that binds to stop codon @ A site | 77 | |
| 13079161076 | Polyribosomes | -strings of ribosomes trailing along mRNA -enables cells to make many copies of polypeptide quickly |  | 78 |
| 13079161077 | Signal Peptide | -targets protein to ER -marks if polypeptide of proteins destined for endomembrane system or for secretion | 79 | |
| 13079161078 | Signal Recognition Particle (SRP) | brings ribosome to receptor protein into ER membrane | 80 | |
| 13079161079 | Signal Mechanism for Targeting Proteins to ER | 1. polypeptide synthesis begins on free ribosome in cytosol 2. SRP binds to signal peptide, halting synthesis momentarily 3. SRP binds to receptor proteins in ER membrane (receptor is part of protein complex w/ membrane and signal cleaving enzyme) 4. SRP leaves, and polypeptide synthesis resumes w/ simultaneous translocation across membrane (signal peptide stays attached to translocation complex) 5. signal cleaving enzyme cuts off signal peptide 6. rest of complexed polypeptide leaves ribosome and folds into final conformation | 81 | |
| 13079161080 | Mutations | -change into genetic information of cell -responsible for huge diversity of genes found along organisms | 82 | |
| 13079161081 | Point Mutations | -chemical changes in a single base pair of a gene -if occurs in a gamete, can be transmitted to offspring and future generations | 83 | |
| 13079161082 | Base Pair Substitutions | replacement of one nucleotide and its partner w/ another pair of nucleotides | 84 | |
| 13079161083 | Missense Mutations | -change one amino acid to another -new amino acid may have properties similar to replaced amino acid, or may be in region where exact sequence of amino acids not essential to proteins functions | 85 | |
| 13079161084 | Nonsense Mutation | -change codon for amino acid into stop codon -causes translation to be terminated prematurely -resulting polypeptide shorter than polypeptide encoded by normal gene | 86 | |
| 13079161085 | Insertions | additions of nucleotide pairs in gene | 87 | |
| 13079161086 | Deletion | losses of nucleotide pairs in gene | 88 | |
| 13079161087 | Frameshift Mutations | -# nucleotides inserted/deleted NOT multiple of 3 -may alter reading frame of genetic message | 89 | |
| 13079161088 | Mutagen | physical and chemical agents that interact w/ DNA that cause mutations | 90 | |
| 13079161089 | rRNA | makes up 60% of the ribosome; site of protein synthesis | 91 | |
| 13079161090 | gene | equals one RNA molecule | 92 | |
| 13079161091 | snRNA | small nuclear RNA | 93 | |
| 13079161092 | srpRNA | signal recognition particle that binds to signal peptides | 94 | |
| 13079161093 | RNAi | Interference RNA | 95 | |
| 13079161094 | ribozyme | RNA molecule that functions as an enzyme | 96 | |
| 13079161095 | Operator | -off/on "switch" that controls whole cluster of functionally related genes |  | 97 |
| 13079161096 | Operon | -operate + promoter + genes they control -entire stretch of DNA for enzyme production for tryptophan pathway |  | 98 |
| 13079161097 | Repressor | -protein that switches operon off |  | 99 |
| 13079161098 | Regulatory Gene (trpR) | -product of trp repressor | 100 | |
| 13079161099 | Corepressor | small molecule that cooperates w/ repressor protein to switch operon off |  | 101 |
| 13079161100 | Repressible Operon | transcription usually on but can be inhibited when specific small molecule binds allosterically to regulatory protein |  | 102 |
| 13079161101 | Inducible Operon | transcription usually off but can be stimulated when specific small molecule interacts w/ regulatory protein |  | 103 |
| 13079161102 | Inducer | specific small molecule, inactivates repressor | 104 | |
| 13079161103 | Activator | protein that binds to DNA and stimulates gene transcription (ex. CAP) |  | 105 |
| 13079161104 | Differential Gene Expression | expression of different genes by cells in the same genome |  | 106 |
| 13079161105 | Histone Acetylation | -attached to lysines in histone tails -> lysines acetylated -> positive charges neutralized -histone tails no longer bind to neighboring nucleosomes | 107 | |
| 13079161106 | Control Elements | segments of noncoding DNA that help regulate transcription by binding certain proteins | 108 | |
| 13079161107 | Enhancers | -distal control elements -may be thousands of nucleotides upstream/downstream of gene or in intron |  | 109 |
| 13079161108 | Alternative RNA Splicing | -different mRNA molecules produced from same primary transcript, depending on which RNA segments are treated as introns and exons -can expand repertoire of eukaryotic genome |  | 110 |
| 13079161109 | Proteasome | giant protein complex recognize ubiquitin-tagged proteins and degradation |  | 111 |
| 13079161110 | microRNAs (miRNAs) | -small, single-stranded RNA molecules capable of binding to complementary sequences in mRNA molecules |  | 112 |
| 13079161111 | RNA interference (RNAi) | injecting double-stranded RNA molecules into cell turned off expression of gene w/ same sequence as RNA |  | 113 |
| 13079161112 | Small Interfering RNAs (siRNAs) | -similar in size and function to miRNAs -formed by much longer double-stranded RnA molecules -> many siRNAs |  | 114 |
| 13079161113 | Cell Differentiation | process by which cells become specialized in structure and function |  | 115 |
| 13079161114 | Morphogenesis | physical processes that give organism its shape |  | 116 |
| 13079161115 | Cytoplasmic Determinants | maternal substances in egg that influence course of early development |  | 117 |
| 13079161116 | Induction | changes in target cells caused by signals impinging on embryonic cell from others in vicinity, including contact w/ cell surface molecules on neighboring cells and binding of growth factors secreted by neighboring cells |  | 118 |
| 13079161117 | Determination | -events that lead to observable differentiation of cell |  | 119 |
| 13079161118 | Homoeotic Genes | control pattern formation in late embryo, larva, and adult |  | 120 |
| 13079161119 | Bicoid (two-tailed) | -mutant gene causes lack of front half of body and posterior structure at both ends -essential for setting anterior end |  | 121 |
| 13079161120 | Morphagen | gradients for substances that establish embryos axis and more | 122 | |
| 13079161121 | Oncogenes | -cancer-causing genes | 123 | |
| 13079161122 | Proto-Oncogenes | -normal versions of cellular genes -code for proteins that stimulate normal cell growth and division | 124 | |
| 13079161123 | Tumor-Supressor Genes | -prevent uncontrolled cell growth -repair damaged DNA -control cell anchorage (absent in cancers) | 125 | |
| 13079161124 | Ras Protein | G protein that relays signal from growth factor on plasma membrane | 126 | |
| 13079161125 | p53 | tumor suppressor gene that codes for specific transcription factor protein that promotes synthesis of cell cycle | 127 | |
| 13079161126 | Mutation Effects | -result in cell cycle overstimulated -not inhibited normally | 128 | |
| 13079161127 | Virus | A small, non living, infectious particle- not capable of of essential life functions to maintain life, health, and continuation of species like other organisms. | 129 | |
| 13079161128 | Viral genomes | Consist of either RNA or DNA ( DNA virus or RNA virus) | 130 | |
| 13079161129 | DNA viruses | The viruses that have DNA genomes. | 131 | |
| 13079161130 | RNA viruses | Viruses that have RNA genomes. | 132 | |
| 13079161131 | Living host cell's genome | Required in viruses in order for them to replicate and carry out protein synthesis. | 133 | |
| 13079161132 | Capsids | A protein shell that encloses a wild genome. | 134 | |
| 13079161133 | Capsomeres | Protein subunits that make up capsids. | 135 | |
| 13079161134 | Membranous envelope (lipid bilayer) | Sometimes surrounds a capsid- comes from the host cells membrane as the capsid exits. | 136 | |
| 13079161135 | Viral glycoproteins | Allow viruses to bind to receptor proteins on host cells. | 137 | |
| 13079161136 | Adenovirus | - Contain glycoproteins - Ex. Common cold ... | 138 | |
| 13079161137 | Influenza virus | - Contain glycoproteins - Ex. The flu ... | 139 | |
| 13079161138 | bacteriophages (phages) | - Viruses that infect bacteria only!!! - Do not contain glycoproteins - Have the most complex capsids in viruses | 140 | |
| 13079161139 | Elongated capsid head | Enclosed a bacteriophage's genetic material | 141 | |
| 13079161140 | Protein tail piece | - Attaches the phage to a host by binding to a receptor - Allows a virus to inject its genetic material into a bacterium | 142 | |
| 13079161141 | Obligate intercellular parasites | Theses only replicate using a host | 143 | |
| 13079161142 | Host range | The limited number of species host cells a virus can infect — — differs per type of virus | 144 | |
| 13079161143 | General replication cycle | 1. Viral genetic material enters the host cell 2. A virus uses the host cell's replication machinery (enzymes, ribosomes, tRNA, ATP, etc.) 3. Genes then product the proteins they code for 4. Viral nucleic acids and capsid proteins spontaneously self-assemble into new viruses | 145 | |
| 13079161144 | Lytic cycle | - The reproduction of viruses immediately followed by the lysing of the host cell and release of new phages - culminates in the death of the bacterium immediately after new viruses are made - newly made viruses are released to infect other bacteria and repeat the cycle | 146 | |
| 13079161145 | Virulent phage | A phage that reproduces only by the lytic cycle | 147 | |
| 13079161146 | Restriction enzymes | Recognize and cut up DNA before replication | 148 | |
| 13079161147 | Lysogenic cycle | 1. A virus incorporates its genetic material into the host genome and then remains dominant 2. With each host cell division, the viral genetic material is passed onto daughter cells 3. A later event causes the expression of the viral genome producing new phages followed by the lysis of a host cell | 149 | |
| 13079161148 | Prophage | - A phage genome inserted and integrated into the circular bacterial DNA chromosome - It is present without causing disruption in the cell | 150 | |
| 13079161149 | Environmental signal | Triggers the viral genome in the lysogenic cycle to switch to 'lytic mode' | 151 | |
| 13079161150 | Temperate phages | Phages that use the lysogenic cycle to reproduce | 152 | |
| 13079161151 | Variables to classify virus that infect animals | - DNA or RNA - Single-stranded or double-stranded genetic material | 153 | |
| 13079161152 | ssRNA | Can serve as mRNA, a template for mRNA synthesis, or a template for DNA synthesis | 154 | |
| 13079161153 | Retrovirus | A virus that stores its nucleic acid as RNA (ssRNA) | 155 | |
| 13079161154 | Reverse transcriptase enzyme | Used ince a retrovirus is inside the host cell in order to produce DNA from its RNA | 156 | |
| 13079161155 | Provirus | When the dsDNA of a virus that infects animals is incorporated into the hosts' genome, the retroviral DNA is referred to as this | 157 | |
| 13079161156 | HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) | - A retrovirus that causes AIDS - An infectious pathogen the destroys the human immune system -There is not cure for this virus yet | 158 | |
| 13079161157 | ️AIDS ( acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) | The final stage of the immune system after being effected by HIV, when all of the T4 lymphocytes have lysed | 159 | |
| 13079161158 | T4 lymphocytes | The host cells of the HIV virus; they're WBC (white blood cells) which have a major role in the immune system - HIV replicated and then lyses these cells, thus spreading itself through them | 160 | |
| 13079161159 | ARVs | A method that may slow the disease of AIDS and its process, as well as its secondary diseases and complications | 161 | |
| 13079161160 | Antiretroviral medications | A medication used to treat viruses, but cannot treat HIV | 162 | |
| 13079161161 | AIDS related cancers | Cervical cancer, Kaposi sarcoma, and lymphoma; it is common for people with AIDS to die from these | 163 | |
| 13079161162 | Free nucleic acids | the material in which viruses most likely evolved from since they only replicate using host cells | 164 | |
| 13079161163 | Plasmids | - A piece of small, circular DNA found in bacteria - Separate from and can replicate independently of the chromosomal DNA - Can be passed from one bacterium to another in cell division | 165 | |
| 13079161164 | Transposon/ Transposable element (TE)/ Jumping genes | DNA sequences that move from one location in the genome to another | 166 | |
| 13079161165 | Vector | A bacteriophage that transfers genetic material from one cell to another | 167 | |
| 13079161166 | DNA technology | methods used to study and/or manipulate DNA, including recombinant DNA technology | 168 | |
| 13079161167 | biotechnology | a form of technology that uses living organisms, usually genes, to modify products, to make or modify plants and animals, or to develop other microorganisms for specific purposes |  | 169 |
| 13079161168 | nucleic acid hybridization | the base pairing of one strand of a nucleic acid to a complementary sequence on another strand |  | 170 |
| 13079161169 | genetic engineering | process of making changes in the DNA code of living organisms | 171 | |
| 13079161170 | DNA sequencing | the process of determining the precise order of nucleotides within a DNA molecule |  | 172 |
| 13079161171 | DNA cloning | the production of multiple copies of a specific DNA segment | 173 | |
| 13079161172 | plasmid | a small, circular piece of DNA located in the cytoplasm of many bacteria |  | 174 |
| 13079161173 | recombinant DNA molecule | a DNA molecule made in vitro with segments from different sources | 175 | |
| 13079161174 | gene cloning | the production of multiple copies of a single gene | 176 | |
| 13079161175 | cloning vector | a DNA molecule that can carry foreign DNA into a host cell and replicate there | 177 | |
| 13079161176 | restriction enzyme | an enzyme that cuts DNA at a specific sequence of nucleotides |  | 178 |
| 13079161177 | restriction site | a specific sequence on a DNA strand that is recognized as a cut siteby a restriction enzyme |  | 179 |
| 13079161178 | restriction fragment | the fragment of DNA that is produced by cleaving DNA with a restriction enzyme | 180 | |
| 13079161179 | sticky end | a single-stranded end of a double-stranded DNA restriction fragment | 181 | |
| 13079161180 | gel electrophoresis | procedure used to separate and analyze DNA fragments by placing a mixture of DNA fragments at one end of a porous gel and applying an electrical voltage to the gel |  | 182 |
| 13079161181 | polymerase chain reaction (PCR) | a technique for amplifying DNA in vitro by incubating with special primers, DNA polymerase molecules, and nucleotides |  | 183 |
| 13079161182 | expression vector | a cloning vector that contains a highly active bacterial promoter just upstream of a restriction site where the eukaryotic gene can be inserted in the correct reading frame | 184 | |
| 13079161183 | electroporation | a technique to introduce recombinant DNA into cells by applying a brief electrical pulse to a solution containing the cells. The pulse creates temporary holes in the cells' plasma membrane, through which DNA can enter | 185 | |
| 13079161184 | nucleic acid probe | radioactively labeled nucleic acid molecule used to tag a particular DNA sequence | 186 | |
| 13079161185 | in situ hybridization | a technique using nucleic acid hybridization with a labeled probe to detect the location of a specific mRNA in an intact organism |  | 187 |
| 13079161186 | reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) | a variant of polymerase chain reaction, that commonly used in molecular biology to detect RNA expression |  | 188 |
| 13079161187 | complementary DNA (cDNA) | DNA molecule made in vitro using mRNA as a template and the enzyme reverse transcriptase |  | 189 |
| 13079161188 | DNA microarray assay | a method to detect and measure the expression of thousands of genes at one time | 190 | |
| 13079161189 | RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) | a method of analyzing large sets of RNAs that involves making cDNAs and sequencing them | 191 | |
| 13079161190 | in vitro mutagenesis | a technique to discover the function of a gene by introducing specific changes into the sequence of a cloned gene, reinserting the mutated gene into a cell, and studying the phenotype of the mutant | 192 | |
| 13079161191 | CRISPR-Cas9 system | a technique for editing genes in living cells, involving a bacterial protein called Cas9 associated with a guide RNA complementary to a gene sequence of interest |  | 193 |
| 13079161192 | genome-wide association study | a large-scale analysis of the genomes of many people having a certain phenotype or disease, with the aim of finding genetic markers that correlate with that phenotype or disease | 194 | |
| 13079161193 | single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) | a single base-pair site in a genome where nucleotide variation is found in at least 1% of the population | 195 | |
| 13079161194 | stem cell | unspecialized cell that can give rise to one or more types of specialized cells | 196 | |
| 13079161195 | totipotent | stem cells with the potential to differentiate into any type of cell |  | 197 |
| 13079161196 | pluripotent | cells that are capable of developing into most, but not all, of the body's cell types |  | 198 |
| 13079161197 | gene therapy | the insertion of working copies of a gene into the cells of a person with a genetic disorder in an attempt to correct the disorder |  | 199 |
| 13079161198 | transgenic | term used to refer to an organism that contains genes from other organisms | 200 | |
| 13079161199 | genetic profile | an individual's unique set of genetic markers | 201 | |
| 13079161200 | short tandem repeats (STRs) | sections of a chromosome in which DNA sequences are repeated | 202 | |
| 13079161201 | genetically modified organism (GMO) | an organism produced by copying genes from a species with a desirable trait and inserting them into another species | 203 |
