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| 6446446 | Winston Churchill | Held numerous government offices, but is most famous for his service as Prime Minister from 1940-45 and 1951-55. His stirring speeches and refusal to surrender during the darkest days of World War II inspired the free world. He adocated strengthening ties between the United States and Britain. | |
| 6446447 | Jonas Salk | American doctor who invented the polio vaccine in 1953. Polio crippled and killed millions worldwide, and the successful vaccine virtually eliminated the scourage. | |
| 6447023 | Marshall Plan | After the masssive destruction in Europe following world War II, the United States proposed an economic plan in 1947 to help restore the region. Aid was providedto any European nation that promised cooperation (Soviet-bloc nations did not participate). The plan was very successful. | |
| 6447024 | Dawes Plan | After World War II, Germany was forced to pay reparations to the Allies. Germany was not able to keep up payments, and in 1924 an American, Charles Dawes, reorganized the repayment plan. The United States also made loans to Germany as part of the plan. | |
| 6447025 | Enrico Fermi | One of the several important physicists of the twentieth century whose work led to the splitting of the atom. He also was instrumental in the Manhattan Project (development of the atomic bomb). | |
| 6447026 | European Community | The E.C., formed in 1970, was an outgrowth of the Common Market nations. European nations allied economically in order to compete against larger nations, such as the United States and Canada. Original members included Italy, England, Spain, Portugal, Greece, Finland, Ireland, and Sweden. | |
| 6447027 | Nuremberg Trials | After World War II, the victorious Allies convened a multinational judicial panel to try Nazis accused of crimes against humanity. Held in Nuremberg, Germany, the trials lasted from 1945-46. The highest-ranking Nazi tried was Hermann Goring, who committed suicide before his death sentence could be carried out. | |
| 6448006 | Carl Jung | Swiss psychiatrist who ws noted for his work dealing with archetypes. He also believed in the theory of collective unconscious (this refers to a dimension of human subconscious that all members of a particular social group share). | |
| 6448007 | Holocaust | The term means "burnt offering" and refers to the Nazi efforts (1933-45) to exterminate the Jews in Europe. Of the 11 million European Jews, 6 million were murdered. | |
| 6448008 | Warsaw Pact | The Warsaw Pact was essentially the response of the USSR to the creation of NATO. The pact began in 1955, with european communist nations pledging mutual military support to one another. It ended with the collapse of the USSR in 1991. | |
| 6448009 | Kaiser William II | Kaiser (German term for emperor who began ruling in 1888. He was determined to expand Gemrna influence and greatly increased the size of Germany's military. He led Germany into World War I and abdicated the throne in 1918. | |
| 6448010 | Yalta Conference | In 1945, Stalin, Churchill, and Franklin Roosevelt met to discuss postwar issues. Stalin was the winner, gaining a pro-Soviet government in charge of Poland, the division of Germany, and teritory concessions in Asia as well. | |
| 6448011 | United Nations | During World War II, Allied leaders decided to establish an international organization devoted to promoting peace. The United nations was formally established in 1945. | |
| 6448012 | "Iron Curtain" | This phrase, coined by Winston Churchill, in a 1946 speech, reffered to the dangers of the increasing Soviet control and domination of Eastern Europe. | |
| 6448013 | Green Party | Political party that began during the later part of the twentieth century. exists in a number of western mations and represents many citizens wanting a political party that reflects environmental concerns. | |
| 6448014 | Max Weber | German philosopher and author who founded the field of sociology. He also stressed the importance of the Protestant work ethic in industrial society. | |
| 6448015 | Great Depression | In 1929, the collapse of the New York Stock Exchange triggered a virtually worldwide financial crisis that came to be known as the Great Depression. Extensive trade barriers between industrial nations also contributed to the problem. | |
| 6480300 | Kellog-Briand Pact | Agreement proposed by American Secretary of State Frank Kellogg in 1927. An outgrowth of World War I, the pact denounced war as a way to resolve conflict and was enorsed by over 50 countries within 5 years. | |
| 6480301 | Ivan Pavlov | Pavlov, using dogs, helped explain conditioning. He was a leader in the field of behavorism and psychology. | |
| 6480302 | Leonid Brezhnev | Leader of the Communiost Party and in effect the leader of the USSR from 1964 until his death in 1982. Insisted the Soviet bloc nations to defer to him. He also followed a policy of building up the Soviet military. | |
| 6480303 | Yuri A. Gagarin | A Russian cosmonauth who became the first man to orbit the earth in 1961.The Soviets' early successful space missions spurred the United States to increase their efforts in this field. | |
| 6480304 | Maria Montessori | Italian physician who gained international fame for her philosophy of teaching, which allowed students to learn in a noncompetitive and relaxed atmosphere. | |
| 6480305 | General Francisco Franco | In 1936 the Spanish Civil War began. Franco led the Fascists, fighting republican forces. In 1939, the Fascist forces won (with help from Italy and Germany). Franco ruled until his death in 1975. | |
| 6480306 | Berlin Airlift | After World War II, Berlin was divided into eastern and western sectors, with the USSR controlling the east and Britain, France, and the United States controling the west. From 1948--49, the Soviets used airplanes to supply West Berlin, and the USSR eventually ceased the blockade. | |
| 6480307 | Truman Doctrine | The policy, begun in 1947, that the United States would not challenge existing Communist nations' right to exist, butwould actively and militarily oppose any further expansion of communism. This policy of containment was followed for decades. | |
| 6480308 | Rape of Nanking | In late 1937, Japan defeated the Chinese city of Nanking. Chinese civilians were brutalized and thousands were killed. The event shocked Western powers and contributed to sanctions against Japan. | |
| 6480309 | Totalitarianism | Type of goverment in which the state is in almost complete control of its citizens' lives. Individual rights are virtually nonexistent; the welfare of the state is all-important. Stalin and Hitler are considered totalitarian rulers. | |
| 6480310 | Einsatzgruppen | Nazi paramilitary groups (also called EGs) that operated in Eastern Europe. The goal was the murder of Jews, Communists, and others who opposed Germany. Millions were murdered. | |
| 6481479 | Ho Chi Minh | Leader of the Vietnamese national opposition to French, Japanese, and American forces. He was the Communist leader of North Vietnam until his death in 1969. | |
| 6481480 | Balfour Declaration | Declaration issued in 1917 by the British Foreign Secretary, Sir A. Balfour, saying the British government would support a Jewish homeland. | |
| 6481481 | "ethnic cleansing" | Euphemism given to genocide committed in the 1990s in former Yugoslavia. This was a Serbian policy directed against Muslims in the region. Serbian leader Slobodan Milosevic was arrested and awaits tril at The Hague. | |
| 6481482 | Helsinki Accords - Helsinki Final Set | Meeting of the United States and most European nations in Helsinki to increase effots for mutual cooperation. Lasted from 1972-75. One important outcome was the agreement that existing political boundaries would not be altered by military force. | |
| 6481483 | Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini | The Shi'ite leader who lef the Iranian 1979 revolution, overthrowing the pro-Western government of the Shah. Iran would become radically anti-Western under his leadership. | |
| 6481484 | Jawaharial Nehru | India's first Prime Minister from 1947-64. | |
| 6481485 | Margaret Sanger and Marie Stoopes | Early crusaders for women's reproductive rights. | |
| 6481486 | Simone de Beauvoir | French author of The Second Sex. She argued for women's rights and was also a prominent figure in the existentialist movement. She died in 1986. | |
| 6481487 | Pablo Picasso | One of the artistic giants of the twentieth century. Helped found the Cubist and Abstract movements. During his life, 1881-1973, he worked in various media and is noted for scores of important works. His painting Guernica is one of the most powerful anti-war expressions of the modern era. | |
| 6481488 | Igor Stravinsky | Russian composer whose use of non-traditional harmonies and dissonant sounds revolutionized modern music. Two important works are Rite of Spring and Firebird. | |
| 6481489 | Expressionism | Beginning in the early 1900s, a school of art that focused on the emotional reaction to a subject. Paintings usually have strong lines and bold, vibrant colors. Masters of the style include Georges Rouault, Vincent van Gogh, and Paul Gaugin. | |
| 6481490 | Marcel Proust | An esteemed French writerwho sought to integrate psychological elements, especially regarding suppressed memories, into literature. His most famous work is the multi-volume Rememberance of Things Past. (1913-1927) | |
| 6481491 | Bauhaus | German architect Walter Gropius (1883-1969) founded the Bauhaus School of Architecture. He favored clean, streamlined buildings. Other pioneers of this "International Style" were Le Corbusier and Frank Lloyd Wright. | |
| 6481492 | Henri Petain | Led the French army at Verdun and eventually became Commander of the French Armies. He served as Prime Minister in 1940. When German forces defeated France, he took control of the Vichy area in 1942. Because of his cooperation with the Nazis, he was arrested and imprisoned until his death in 1951. | |
| 6481493 | "Lebensraum" | German word meaning "living space." The Nazis claimed the German people deserved more room to expand and used this as a justification for invading meighboring nations. | |
| 6481494 | Nicholas II | The last czar of Russia, he abdicated in 1917 and was murdered in 1918 along with his family. Though generally regarded as a decent man, he was an extremely weak and ineffective leader. | |
| 6481495 | Leon Trotsky | One of the leaders of the Russian Communist revolution (1917). A close supporter of Lenin, Trotsky was largely responsible for creating the Red Army. After Lenin's death in 1924, he and Stalin sought control of the party; Stalin won. He was deported in 1929 and murdered in 1940 by an agent of Stalin. | |
| 6481496 | Vladamir Lenin | Lenin led the Bolshevik (Communist) Revolution in Russia in 1917. He would lead the Communists to victory in the Civil War and would rule until his death in 1924. | |
| 6481497 | Nikita Kruschev | Leader of the USSR from 1953-64. While famous for his "we will bury you" comment to the United States, he also opened communication with the West, particularly the United States. He also ended Stalinist purges in the USSR. | |
| 6481498 | Joseph Stalin | Stalin became dictator of Russia after Lenin's death in 1924. He led the USSR through WWII and into the Cold War. He died in 1953 and is remembered for his brutal purges in his nation. | |
| 6481499 | Bolsheviks | They were the radical Russian Communists, led by Lenin, who established Communist rule in Russia. They were nicknamed the "Reds." | |
| 6481500 | Boris Yeltsin | First leader of the Russian Republic. HIs pro-democracy reaction when Gorbachev's push for reform was held off by the Communist establishment was a rallying point for Russian democratic supporters. | |
| 6481501 | Glasnost | Mikhail Gorbachev's policy of "openness" in Soviet government. While it was meant to gain the support and trust of Russian citizens, it actuall undermined the Soviet's reputation and stability. | |
| 6481502 | Rasputin | Self-proclaimed Russian Holy man who became confidante to Czarina Alexandria, wife of Nicholas II. He reputedly was able to help the hei, Alexis, who suffered from hemophilia. His unsavory reputation and drunken behavior led to rumors that his relationship with the Czarina was inappropriate. Murdered in 1916. | |
| 6481503 | Five Year Plans | Stalin's attempt to rapidly modernize Russia's industrial capacity began in 1928, with the collectivization of farms as a part of the process. Russia's heavy industrial capacity did increase, but the collectivization caused massive unrest and violence. The second Five Year Plan began in 1933. | |
| 6481504 | Gulags | Forced labor camps set up by Stalin in easter Russia. Dissidents were sent to the camps, where conditions were generally brutal. Millions died. | |
| 6481505 | "Bloody Sunday" | In 1905, a large but peaceful group of poor Russians marched to the Winter Palace to present a petition to NIcholas II. Soldiers opened fire on the group, and many (including women and children) were killed or injured; this further reduced trust in the Czar. | |
| 6481506 | Chernobyl | The nuclear powerplant in the Ukraine that suffered two large explosions which released massive ammounts of radioactuve materials. It is the worst nuclear accident in history and thousands were and continue to be impacted by the disaster. | |
| 6481507 | Mikhail Gorbachev | Became the leader of the USSR in 1985. He proposed major reforms and adopted policies of greater openness (glasnostand perestroika) and allowed Soveit-bloc states greater independence. In 1991, there wa an unsuccessful attemtped overthrow of his government. The USSR dissolved in 1991 with Gorbachev's resignation. |
