first semester final review
Terms : Hide Images
| Considered the Father of modern psychology; study of mental processes, introspection, and self-exam; established the first psychology laboratory in Germany | ||
| Student of Wilhelm Wundt; founder of Structuralist school of psychology. | ||
| an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind | ||
| founder of functionalism; studied how humans use perception to function in our environment | ||
| a school of psychology that focused on how mental and behavioral processes function- how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish | ||
| austrian physician whose work focused on the unconscious causes of behavior and personality formation; founded psychoanalysis | ||
| Freud's theory of personality and therapeutic techniques that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts. Freud believed the patient's free associations, resistances, dreams, and transferences- and the therapist's interpretations of them- released previously repressed feelings, allowing the patient to gain self- insight | ||
| American psychologist who founded behaviorism, emphasizing the study of observable behavior and rejecting the study of mental processes | ||
| the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2) | ||
| behaviorism; pioneer in operant conditioning; behavior is based on an organism's reinforcement history; worked with pigeons | ||
| field; humanistic. United States psychologist who developed client-centered therapy (1902-1987) | ||
| humanistic psychology; hierarchy of needs-needs at a lower level dominate an individual's motivation as long as they are unsatisfied; self-actualization, transcendence | ||
| a branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior (some biological psychologists call themselves behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologist, behavior genetics, physiological psychologist, or biopsychologists) | ||
| the branch of social psychology that deals with the processes and emotions that determine psychology and motivation | ||
| the perspective of psychological science that deals with how we learn observable responses | ||
| historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people; used personalized methods to study personality in hopes of fostering personal growth | ||
| perspective in psychology that stresses the goodness of people and their possibility of reaching their fullest potential | ||
| all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating | ||
| comparisoin of cultural phenonmeon in different cultures (cross cultural study of TV might compare programming in different countries) | ||
| the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection | ||
| the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another | ||
| suggests how we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition | ||
| the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate the impact of personal disposition | ||
| feelings, often based on our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people and events | ||
| the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request | ||
| 1933-present; Field: social psychology; Contributions: proved that peoples behavior depends to a large extent on the roles they are asked to play; Studies: Stanford Prison Study-studied power of social roles to influence people's behavior | ||
| the theory that we act to reduce to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when our awareness of attitudes and of our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes | ||
| adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with group standards | ||
| social psychologists who devised the line test to test conformity | ||
| influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval | ||
| influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality | ||
| 1933-1984; Field: social psychology; Contributions: wanted to see how the German soldiers in WWII fell to obedience, wanted to see how far individuals would go to be obedient; Studies: Shock Study | ||
| stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others | ||
| the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountability | ||
| the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity | ||
| the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group | ||
| the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives | ||
| an expectation that causes you to act in ways that make that expectation come true. | ||
| an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members. Prejudice generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action | ||
| a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people | ||
| "Us"- people with whom one shares a common identity | ||
| "Them"- those perceived as different or apart from one's ingroup | ||
| the tendency to favor one's own group | ||
| the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame | ||
| the tendency of people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get | ||
| any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy | ||
| a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior | ||
| the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them | ||
| unselfish regard for the welfare of others | ||
| the tendency of any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present | ||
| all the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study (Note: Except for national studies, this does not refer to a country's population) | ||
| a sample that fairly represents a populations because each member has an equal chance of inclusion | ||
| assigning participant to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting difference between those assigned to the different groups | ||
| the experiment factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied | ||
| the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable | ||
| the condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the treatment, that is, to one version of independent variable | ||
| the condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental condition and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment | ||
| the statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables | ||
| experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which is assumed to be an active agent | ||
| an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received treatment of a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies | ||
| repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extend to other participants and circumstances | ||
| our awareness of ourselves and our environment | ||
| periodic physiological fluctuations | ||
| the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle | ||
| rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active | ||
| false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of external visual stimulus | ||
| the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state | ||
| the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep | ||
| short bursts of brain waves detected in stage 2 sleep | ||
| The last two stages of sleep, characterized by slow brain waves, deep breathing, and calm heartbeat | ||
| recurring problems in falling or staying asleep | ||
| a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times | ||
| a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings | ||
| a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during Stage 4 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered | ||
| a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts, passing through a sleeping person's mind. Dreams are notable for their hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities, and incongruities, and for the dreamer's delusional acceptance of the content and later difficulties remembering | ||
| according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent, or hidden, content) | ||
| according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content). Freud believed that a dream's latent content functions as a safety value | ||
| the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakening during REM sleep) | ||
| a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur | ||
| selective amnesia after being in a hypnotic state of events occurring during hypnosis or of information designated by the hypnotist | ||
| a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors | ||
| a split consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others. | ||
| Hilgard's term describing a hypnotized subject's awareness of experiences, such as pain, that go unreported during hypnosis | ||
| a chemical substance that alters perceptions and mood | ||
| the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect | ||
| the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug | ||
| a physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued | ||
| a psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions | ||
| compulsive drug craving and use | ||
| drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions | ||
| drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions | ||
| psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input | ||
| drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment | ||
| opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety | ||
| drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes | ||
| a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with speed-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels | ||
| A compound drug related to both amphetamines and hallucinogens, especially mescaline; commonly called "ecstasy." | ||
| a major active ingredient in marijuana; trigers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations | ||
| a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid (lysergic acid diethylamide) | ||
| the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment | ||
| the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events | ||
| analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information | ||
| information processing guided by higher-level mental process, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations | ||
| the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experiences of them | ||
| the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time | ||
| the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time. We experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference (also called just noticeable difference) | ||
| the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather two constant amounts) | ||
| a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus ("signal") amid background stimulation ("noise"). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and level of fatigue. | ||
| below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness | ||
| diminished sensitivity as a consequences of constant stimulation | ||
| conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, smells, into neural impulse our brains can interpret | ||
| the clear tissue that covers the front of the eye | ||
| the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters | ||
| a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening | ||
| the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina | ||
| the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information | ||
| retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations. | ||
| the central point of in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster | ||
| specialized cells which connect rods and cones to the ganglion cells of the optic nerve | ||
| the specialized cells which lie behind the bipolar cells whose axons form the optic nerve which takes the information to the brain | ||
| the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain | ||
| nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement | ||
| Visual theory, stated by Young and Helmholtz that all colors can be made by mixing the three basic colors: red, green, and blue; a.k.a the Young-Helmholtz theory. | ||
| images that occur when a visual sensation persists for a brief time even after the original stimulus is removed | ||
| a variety of disorders marked by inability to distinguish some or all colors | ||
| the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green | ||
| the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there | ||
| greatness of magnitude | ||
| the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for example, per second) | ||
| the property of sound that varies with variation in the frequency of vibration | ||
| a unit of measurement of loudness | ||
| either of the passages in the outer ear from the auricle to the tympanic membrane | ||
| tightly stretched membrane located at the end of the ear canal that vibrates when struck by sound waves | ||
| the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window | ||
| the innermost part of the ear =, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs | ||
| a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulse | ||
| membrane that covers the opening between the middle ear and inner ear | ||
| A structure that runs the length of the cochlea in the inner ear and holds the auditory receptors, called hair cells. | ||
| Receptor cells within the cochlea that transduce vibrations into nerve impulses | ||
| in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated | ||
| in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch | ||
| hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to cochlea | ||
| hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness | ||
| a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea | ||
| a somatic sensation of acute discomfort | ||
| the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on the brian. The "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain. | ||
| the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste | ||
| bitter, sweet, salty, sour | ||
| Can distinguish thousands of different odors and flavors. Identification begins at membrane receptors on sensory cells | ||
| sensory receptors for smell, constantly replaced every 30 to 60 days. when stimulated by airborne molecules, the stimulation gets passed to its axons which bundle to create the olfactory nerve | ||
| the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body part | ||
| the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balence | ||
| the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus, as in the cocktail party effect | ||
| an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes | ||
| the orginization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground) | ||
| the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups | ||
| grouping nearby figures together | ||
| grouping together figures that are similar to eachoter | ||
| perceiving smooth, continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones. | ||
| because they are uniform and liked, we perceive the the two dots and the line between them as a single unit | ||
| a Gestalt principle of organization holding that there is an innate tendency to perceive incomplete objects as complete and to close or fill gaps and to perceive asymmetric stimuli as symmetric | ||
| the ability to see objects in three dimensional although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance | ||
| a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals | ||
| depth cues, such as retinal disparity and convergence, that depend on the use of two eyes | ||
| a binocular cue for perceiving depth: By comparing images from the two eyeballs, the brain computes distance-the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object | ||
| a binocular cue for perceiving depth; the extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object. The greater the inward strain, the closer the object | ||
| depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone | ||
| a monocular cue for perceiving depth; if one object partially blocks our view of another, it is perceived as closer | ||
| a monocular cues for perceiving depth; whereby larger objects are perceived as closer than smaller ones | ||
| a monocular cue for perceiving depth; a gradual change from a coarse distinct texture to a fine, indistinct texture signals increasing distance. objects far away appear smaller and more densely packed | ||
| a monocular cue for perceiving depth; objects higher in our field of vision are perceived as farther away | ||
| a monocular cue for perceiving depth; while you are moving, the nearer an object is, the faster it seems to move | ||
| a monocular cue for perceiving depth; while you are moving, the nearer an object is, the faster it seems to move | ||
| a monocular cue for perceiving depth; the more parallel lines converge, the greater their perceived distance | ||
| a monocular cue for perceiving depth; a dimmer object seems farther away | ||
| eight monocular cues | ||
| the illusion of movement created by presenting visual stimuli in rapid succession; an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession | ||
| perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent lightness, color, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change | ||
| in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field | ||
| a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another | ||
| the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input. Said to include telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition | ||
| those who study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis | ||
| a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system | ||
| the busy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body | ||
| the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands | ||
| a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next | ||
| a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. The action potential is generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon's membrane. | ||
| the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or cleft. | ||
| the potential difference between the two sides of the membrane of a nerve cell when the cell is not conducting an impulse | ||
| a resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm | ||
| cause actions; tell body to act quickly | ||
| the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse | ||
| When a muscle fiber contracts,it contracts completely | ||
| chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic gaps between neurons. WHen released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to the receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impluse | ||
| chemical substances that mimic or enhance the effects of a neurotransmitter on the receptor sites of the next cell, increasing or decreasing the activity of that cell | ||
| process by which neurotransmitters are taken back into the synaptic vesicles | ||
| the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions | ||
| the base of the brainstem; control heartbeat and breathing | ||
| the nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal | ||
| the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla | ||
| the ''little brain'' attached to the rear of the brainstem' its functions include processing sensory input and coordination movement output and balance | ||
| a doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres' associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex. Includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus | ||
| a neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage | ||
| two lima-bean sized neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion | ||
| a band of nerve fibers linking the medulla oblongata and the cerebellum with the midbrain | ||
| tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue | ||
| an amplified recording of the waves of the electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp | ||
| a series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body. | ||
| a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive from of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task | ||
| a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue allows us to see structures within the brains | ||
| a technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. MRI scans show brain anatomy; fMRI sans show brain function | ||
| the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center | ||
| the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgement | ||
| the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position | ||
| the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; included the visual ares. which recieve visual information from the opposite visual field | ||
| the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each of which receives auditory information primarily from the opposite ear | ||
| a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion | ||
| an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements | ||
| the area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations | ||
| areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather , they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking and speaking | ||
| impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impaired understanding) | ||
| controls language expression- an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech | ||
| controls language reception- a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe | ||
| the brain's capacity for modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage (especially in children) and in experiments on the effects of experience on brain development | ||
| cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons | ||
| the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them | ||
| term used to describe the fact the two hemisheres of the brain are designed to handle specific tasks (Left - logic, language; Right - creativity, spatial reasoning, art, emotion) | ||
| the body's speedy , electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous system | ||
| neural 'cables' containing many axons. These bundled axons, which are part of the peripheral nervous system, connect the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs | ||
| neurons that carry incoming information from the sense receptors to the central nervous system | ||
| central nervous system neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs | ||
| neurons that carry outgoing information from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands | ||
| the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body | ||
| the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system | ||
| the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the gland and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms | ||
| the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations | ||
| the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy | ||
| the brain and spinal cord | ||
| a major part of the central nervous system which conducts sensory and motor nerve impulses to and from the brain | ||
| a simple, automatic, inborn response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response | ||
| interconnected neural cells. With experience, networks can learn, as feedbacks strengthens or inhibits connections that produce certain results. COmputer simulations of neural networks who analogous learning | ||
| a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span | ||
| the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo | ||
| the developing female organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month | ||
| the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth | ||
| agents such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm | ||
| physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, symptoms include noticeable facial misproportions | ||
| a baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and search for the nipple | ||
| decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner | ||
| biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experiences | ||
| Four stage theory of cognitive development: 1. sensorimotor, 2. pre-operational, 3. concrete operational, and 4. formal operational. He said that the two basic processes work in tandem to achieve cognitive growth-assimilation and accommodation | ||
| in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities | ||
| in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic | ||
| in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from 6/7 to to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events | ||
| in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts | ||
| a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information | ||
| interpreting one's new experience in terms of one's existing schema | ||
| adapting one's current understanding (schemas) to incorporate new information | ||
| the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived | ||
| the principal (which Piaget believed to be part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms or objects | ||
| in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty in taking another's point of view | ||
| people's ideas about their own and others' mental states-about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts and the behavior these might predict | ||
| the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age | ||
| an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress and separation | ||
| development, contact comfort, attachment; experimented with baby rhesus monkeys and presented them with cloth or wire "mothers;" showed that the monkeys became attached to the cloth mothers because of contact comfort | ||
| an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development | ||
| the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life | ||
| 1913-1999; Field: development; Contributions: compared effects of maternal separation, devised patterns of attachment; Studies: The Strange Situation-observation of parent/child attachment | ||
| 1902-1994; Field: neo-Freudian, humanistic; Contributions: created an 8-stage theory to show how people evolve through the life span. Each stage is marked by a psychological crisis that involves confronting "Who am I?" | ||
| according to Erik Erikson a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropiate experiences with responsive caregivers | ||
| a sense of one's identity and personal worth | ||
| An observational measure of infant attachment that requires the infant to move through a series of introducions, separations, and reunions with the caregiver and an adult stranger in a prescribed order | ||
| our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine they to communicate meaning | ||
| in a language, the smallest distinctive unit | ||
| in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix) | ||
| in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand them | ||
| the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning | ||
| the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language | ||
| at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language | ||
| the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words | ||
| beginning at about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly in two-word statements | ||
| early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram using mostly nouns and verbs, omitting auxiliary words | ||
| pioneer of operant conditioning who believed that everything we do is determined by our past history of rewards and punishments. he is famous for use of his operant conditioning aparatus which he used to study schedules of reinforcement on pidgeons and rats. | ||
| qualitative changes in thinking, feeling, and behaving that characterize specific periods of development | ||
| parents are both demanding and responsive. They exert control not only by setting rules and enforcing them but also by explaining the reasons and, especially with older children, encouraging open discussions and allowing expectations when making the rules | ||
| style of parenting marked by submitting to children's desires, making few demands, and using little punishment | ||
| parents impose rules and expect obedience | ||
| the sex chromosome found in both men and women. Females have two X chromosomes; males have one. An X chromosome from each parent produces a female child | ||
| the sex chromosome found only in males. when paired with and x chromosome from the mother, it produces the male child | ||
| the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty | ||
| a set of expected behaviors for males and for females | ||
| one's sense of being male or female | ||
| the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role | ||
| the theory that we can learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished | ||
| the theory that children learn from their cultures a concept of what it means to be male and female and that they adjust their behavior accordingly | ||
| the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence | ||
| the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing | ||
| the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that makes sexual reproduction possible | ||
| non-reproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair | ||
| the first menstrual period | ||
| moral development; presented boys moral dilemmas and studied their responses and reasoning processes in making moral decisions. Most famous moral dilemma is "Heinz" who has an ill wife and cannot afford the medication. Should he steal the medication and why? | ||
| first level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development in which the child's behavior is governed by the consequences of the behavior | ||
| second level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development in which the child's behavior is governed by conforming to the society's norms of behavior | ||
| third level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development in which the person's behavior is governed by moral principles that have been decided on by the individual and that may be in disagreement with accepted social norms | ||
| one's sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles | ||
| in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood | ||
| the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines | ||
| a progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and, finally physically functioning | ||
| a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another | ||
| a research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period | ||
| one's accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age | ||
| one's ability to reason speedily and abstractly' tends to decrease during late adulthood | ||
| the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement | ||
| the desire in middle age to use ones accumulated wisdom to guide future generations | ||
| the act of becoming formally connected or joined | ||
| a desire for significant accomplishment" for mastery of things, people, or ideas; for attaining a high standard | ||
| an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation | ||
| the quality of being productive or having the power to produce | ||
| the act of binding yourself (intellectually or emotionally) to a course of action | ||
| the quality of being adequately or well qualified physically and intellectually | ||
| the tendency to believe, after learning learning an outcome that one would have seen it (the i knew it all along phenomenon) | ||
| The magician that exemplifies skepticism. Disproves psychics. | ||
| an explanation using an integrated set of principals that organizes and predicts observations | ||
| a testable predictions, often implied by theory | ||
| a statement of the procedures used to define research variables | ||
| repeating the essence of the research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances | ||
| the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors | ||
| all the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study | ||
| a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion | ||
| an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles | ||
| a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them | ||
| observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situations | ||
| a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together and thus of how well either factor predicts the other | ||
| a statistic representing how closely two variables co-vary | ||
| a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggest the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggest the strength of the correlation | ||
| the perception of a relationship where none exists | ||
| a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors. | ||
| an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or placebo | ||
| studied the effects of segregation and racism on the self-esteem of black children. Her work with her husband, Dr. Kenneth Clark, was used in testimony in the case of Brown V. The Board of Education | ||
| studied segregation on children | ||
| phenomenon in which participants' knowledge that they're being studied can affect their behavior | ||
| experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which is assumed to be an active agent | ||
| the condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable | ||
| the condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental condition and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment | ||
| assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups | ||
| the experimental factor that is manipulated the variable whose effect is being studied | ||
| the outcome factor; the variable that my change in response to manipulations of the independent variable | ||
| extraneous factor that interferes with the action of the independent variable on the dependent variable | ||
| For an experiment to be ethical (for humans) it needs consent, no harm, anonymity, and a debriefing. For animals it can't be prolonged pain. | ||
| mean, median, mode | ||
| the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of stores | ||
| the arithmetic average of a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it | ||
| the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution | ||
| the difference between the highest and the lowest scores in a distribution | ||
| a computed measure of how much scores vary around the main score | ||
| distance from the mean in units of standard deviation | ||
| probability of an alignment occuring with the score in question or better. A different way of representing the significance of alignmnet; significant P scores will be close to 0. | ||
| a distribution of observed frequencies of occurrence of the values of a variable |
