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Sensation & Perception - AP Psychology Flashcards

Terms from unit on Sensation and Perception in AP Psychology. (Myers for AP 2e)

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11655430334sensationthe process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment.0
11655430335perceptionthe process of organizing and interpreting sensory information; enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events.1
11655430336bottom-up processinganalysis that begins with the sense receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information.2
11655430337top-down processinginformation processing guided by higher-level mental process, as when we construct perceptions drawing out our experience and expectation.3
11655430338psychophysicsthe study of relationship between the physical characteristic of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them.4
11655430339absolute thresholdthe minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time.5
11655430340signal detection theorya theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimuli ("signal") amid background stimulation ("noise"). Assumes that there is no single absolute threshold and that focuses more on the processing of briefly stored information. (e.g. what determines a "hit", "miss," "false alarm" or "correct rejection")6
11655430341difference thresholdthe minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time; also referred to as just noticeable difference (JND)7
11655430342subliminal sensationdetection of stimuli below absolute threshold8
11655430343Weber's lawthe principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount).9
11655430344sensory adaptationdiminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation.10
11655430345transductionconversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies into neural impulses.11
11655430346wavelengththe distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next.12
11655430347amplitudeheight of a wave; influences brightness in visual perception and volume in audition13
11655430348huethe dimension of color that is determine by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth.14
11655430349pupilthe adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters.15
11655430350irisa ring of muscle tissue that forms the color portions of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening.16
11655430351lensthe transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina.17
11655430352accommodationthe process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina.18
11655430353retinathe light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information.19
11655430354rodsRetinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond.20
11655430355conesReceptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. They detect fine details and give rise to color sensation.21
11655430356optic nervethe nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain.22
11655430357blind spotthe point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye; no receptors cells are located there. Creates a gap in our vision that is "filled" by the brain.23
11655430358foveathe central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster.24
11655430359feature detectorsnerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimuli, such as shape, angle, or movement.25
11655430360parallel processingthe processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrast with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.26
11655430361Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic theorythe theory that the retina contains three different colors receptors-one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue-which when stimulated in combination can produce the perception of any color.27
11655430362Opponent-Process theorythe theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision; useful for explaining the phenomenon of "after-images"28
11655430363color constancyperceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the objects.29
11655430364auditionthe sense of hearing30
11655430365frequencythe number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time; determines perception of hue in light and of pitch in sound31
11655430366pitchsound information that depends on frequency (or wavelength) of sound waves32
11655430367middle earthe chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window.33
11655430368inner earthe innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs.34
11655430369Place Theoryin hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated.35
11655430370frequency theoryin hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch.36
11655430371conduction hearing losshearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea.37
11655430372sensorineural hearing losshearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptors cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness.38
11655430373gate-control theorythe theory that the spinal cord contains neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is open by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming form the brain.39
11655430374kinesthesiathe system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts; enabled by feedback from proprioceptors (which provide info about the movement of muscles, tendons, joints); also called "proprioception"40
11655430375vestibular sensethe sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance; enabled by feedback from semicircular canals in inner ear41
11655430376hair cellsfinger-like projections on the basilar membrane that stimulate activity of the auditory nerve42
11655430377cochleasnail-shaped tube in the inner ear that contains fluid that moves in response to vibrations, stimulating activity on the basilar membrane43
11655430378basilar membranearea within the cochlea where hair cells are located44
11655430379semicircular canalsfluid filled tubes in inner ear that provide information about movement of the head45
11655430380Ernst Weberearly psychologist who established that the proportion of difference (rather than absolute difference) between two stimuli that is required for distinguishing between them is constant for particular types of sensation (e.g. weight, brightness, etc).46
11655430381Gustav Fechneroften credited with founding "psychophysics" as a subfield of psychology; studied afterimages47
11655430382David Hubel & Torsten WieselNobel-prize-winning researchers who discovered "feature detectors" within the brain48
11655430383cochlear implanta device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea49
11655430384sensory interactionthe principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences taste50
11655430385synaesthesiawhen one sort of sensation (such as hearing a sound) produces another (such as seeing color)51
11655430386olfactionsense of smell52
11655430387prosopagnosiainability to recognize or perceive faces53
11655430388gestalta perceptual whole; derived from German word meaning "form" or "whole"54
11655430389subliminalliterally, "below threshold"; stimuli too weak to be consistently detected55
11655430390selective attentionability to attend to only a limited amount of sensory information at one time56
11655430391cocktail party effectability to selectively attend to one voice among many57
11655430392figure-groundA gestalt perceptual phenomenon; the organization of the visual field into objects that stand out from their surroundings58
11655430393groupingthe perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups59
11655430394proximityGestalt grouping principle; we group nearby figures together60
11655430395similarityGestalt grouping principle; we group similar figures together61
11655430396continuityGestalt grouping principle; our tendency to perceive smooth, continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones62
11655430397connectednessGestalt grouping principle; when objects uniform (in color or texture) are linked (no space exists between them) we perceive them as a single unit63
11655430398closureGestalt grouping principle; we fill in "gaps" to create a full, complete object64
11655430399depth perceptionthe ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance65
11655430400visual clifflaboratory device for testing depth perception among infants and young animals; its use demonstrated that, among most species, animals have the ability to perceive depth by the time they are mobile66
11655430401binocular cuesdepth cues that require the combined input of both eyes67
11655430402monocular cuesdepth cues that only require input from one eye; often used in 2D art to create illusion of depth68
11655430403retinal disparitya binocular cue for perceiving depth; by comparing the images of the retinas of the two eyes, the brain computes distance. The greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object69
11655430404convergencea binocular cue for perceiving depth; the more the eyes strain to turn inwards to view an object, the closer the object is (note: only a factor at close ranges)70
11655430405Wolfgang Kohlercredited with founding Gestalt Psychology71
11655430406relative heightmonocular cue for depth perception; we perceive objects higher in our visual field to be farther away. Explanation for why the "bottom" of a figure-ground illusion usually is interpreted as the "figure"72
11655430407relative sizemonocular cue for depth perception; if we assume two objects are similar in size, most people perceive the one that casts the smaller retinal image to be farther away73
11655430408interpositionmonocular cue for depth perception; if one object partially blocks our view of another object, we perceive it as closer74
11655430409linear perspectivemonocular cue for depth perception; parallel lines, such as railroad tracks, appear to converge with distance. The more they converge, the greater the perceived distance75
11655430410light and shadowmonocular cue for depth perception; nearby objects reflect more light to our eyes...thus, given two identical objects, the dimmer one seems farther away. Also, shading produces a sense of depth consistent with our assumption that light comes from above.76
11655430411relative motionmonocular cue for depth perception; as we move, stationary objects seem to "move" as well. Objects above a fixation point move "with" us, objects below the fixation point move "past" us.77
11655430412relative claritymonocular cue for depth perception; objects that seem "fuzzier" or less clear are perceived to be farther away.78
11655430413texture gradientmonocular cue for depth perception; a gradual change from course, distinct texture to fine, indistinct texture signals increasing distance79
11655430414phi phenomenonan illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in rapid succession80
11655430415stroboscopic movementthe brain's perception of continuous movement in a rapid series of slightly varying images; this is how we perceive motion in film and animation81
11655430416perceptual constancyperceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent shapes, size, lightness, and color) even as illumination and retinal images change82
11655430417perceptual adaptationthe ability to adjust to an altered perceptual reality; in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or inverted visual field (as when wearing visual displacement goggles).83
11655430418perceptual setmental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another (for example, due to suggestion or expectations based on prior learning)84
11655430419extrasensory perception (ESP)the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input; includes telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition85
11655430420parapsychologythe study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis86
11655430421telepathymind-to-mind communication; a person sending thoughts to another or perceiving another's thoughts87
11655430422clairvoyanceperceiving remote events, such as sensing that a friend's house is on fire88
11655430423precognitionperceiving future events, such as a political leader's death or a sporting event's outcome89
11655430424psychokinesisability to move objects with one's mind90
11655430425Ganzfeld procedurelaboratory procedure used to test powers of extrasensory perception by reducing the distractions of other sensory information (e.g. noise cancelling headphones, ping-pong balls over the eyes, etc.)91
11655430426visual capturethe phenomenon that occurs when vision overtakes some other, conflicting sensory input92
11655430427change blindnesswhen paying attention to a specific aspect of a visual scene, we may fail to notice other fairly obvious changes or presentations of stimuli; demonstrated by the door study and the gorilla illusion93
11655430428McGurk effectthe same sound (e.g. "ba") can be perceived differently (e.g. "pa" or "fa") when the visual image of the mouth pronouncing it is changed; a classic example of "visual capture"94
11655430429bipolar cellssecond layer of neurons in the retina that transmit impulses from rods and cones to ganglion cells; rods share these, but cones do not95
11655430430retinal ganglion cellsthe third layer of retinal neurons whose axons leave the eyeball and form the optic nerve.96
11655430431gustationsense of taste97
11655430432embodied cognitionin psychological science, the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgments98
11655430433primingActivation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response99
11655430434nociceptorsNerve endings that signal the sensation of pain.100

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