How did plants colonize land? Find out the answer to this and many more questions in this stunning 2-part series.
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| 1398372266 | thin coatings of these organisms existed on land about 1.2 billion years ago | cyanobacteria | 1 | |
| 1398372267 | cyanobacteria first appeared on earth approximately this many bya | 1.2 | 2 | |
| 1398372268 | within the last ___ million years, small plants as well as animals and fungi joined cyanobacteria ashore | 500 | 3 | |
| 1398372269 | about this many mya, some plants grew much taller, forming forests | 370 | 4 | |
| 1398372270 | green algae called these are the closest relatives of land plants | charophytes | 5 | |
| 1398372271 | these are the four characteristics that charophytes share with land plants: rosette-shaped cellulose-synthesizing complexes, peroxisome enzymes, flagellated sperm, and ___ | phragmoplasts | 6 | |
| 1398372272 | these are the four characteristics that charophytes share with land plants: rosette-shaped cellulose-synthesizing complexes, peroxisome enzymes, ___, and phragmoplasts | flagellated sperm | 7 | |
| 1398372273 | these are the four characteristics that charophytes share with land plants: rosette-shaped cellulose-synthesizing complexes, ___, flagellated sperm, and phragmoplasts | peroxisome enzymes | 8 | |
| 1398372274 | these are the four characteristics that charophytes share with land plants: ___, peroxisome enzymes, flagellated sperm, and phragmoplasts | rosette-shaped cellulose-synthesizing complexes | 9 | |
| 1398372275 | the rosette-shaped complexes in the plasma membranes of charophytes and land plants synthesize cellulose ___ | microfibrils | 10 | |
| 1398372276 | noncharophyte algae have ___ arrays of cellulose-synthesizing protein complexes | linear | 11 | |
| 1398372277 | these organelles in land plants and charophytes contain enzymes that help minimize the loss of organic products as a result of photorespiration | peroxisomes | 12 | |
| 1398372278 | peroxisomes in land plants and charophytes contain enzymes that help minimize the loss of organic products as a result of this process | photorespiration | 13 | |
| 1398372279 | this is a group of microtubules that forms between the daughter nuclei of a dividing cell | phragmoplast | 14 | |
| 1398372280 | this develops in the middle of the phragmoplast across the midline of the dividing cell | cell plate | 15 | |
| 1398372281 | the cell plate develops in the middle of this structure | phragmoplast | 16 | |
| 1398372282 | the cell plate gives rise to a new ___ that separates the daughter cells | cross wall | 17 | |
| 1398372283 | these two genera are the closest living relatives of land plants | Chara, Coleochaete | 18 | |
| 1398372284 | this is a layer of durable polymer that prevents exposed zygotes from drying out | sporopollenin | 19 | |
| 1398372285 | many biologists equate the kingdom Plantae with these | embryophytes | 20 | |
| 1398372286 | this is the formal name of the taxon of plants that have embryos | Plantae | 21 | |
| 1398372287 | chlorophytes, charophytes, and embryophytes all exist within this kingdom | Viridiplantae | 22 | |
| 1398372288 | Viridiplantae is composed of these three types of "plants" | Chlorophytes, Charophytes, Embryophytes | 23 | |
| 1398372289 | Charophytes and Embryophytes make up this kingdom | Streptophyta | 24 | |
| 1398372290 | Streptophyta consists of these two types of "plants" | Charophytes, Embryophytes | 25 | |
| 1398372291 | the four derived traits of land plants are alternation of generations, walled spores produced in sporangia, multicellular gametangia, and ___ | apical meristems | 26 | |
| 1398372292 | the four derived traits of land plants are alternation of generations, walled spores produced in sporangia, ___, and apical meristems | multicellular gametangia | 27 | |
| 1398372293 | the four derived traits of land plants are alternation of generations, ___, multicellular gametangia, and apical meristems | walled spores produced in sporangia | 28 | |
| 1398372294 | the four derived traits of land plants are ___, walled spores produced in sporangia, multicellular gametangia, and apical meristems | alternation of generations | 29 | |
| 1398372295 | these are the two generations of multicellular land plants | gametophytes, sporophytes | 30 | |
| 1398372296 | does alternation of generations occur in some algae? does it occur in charophytes? (separate answers by "and") | yes and no | 31 | |
| 1398372297 | this is the haploid land plant generation | gametophyte | 32 | |
| 1398372298 | this is the diploid land plant generation | sporophyte | 33 | |
| 1398372299 | the gametophyte produces gametes through ___ | mitosis | 34 | |
| 1398372300 | the sporophyte produces spores through ___ | meiosis | 35 | |
| 1398372301 | these are reproductive cells that can develop into a new haploid organism without fusing with another cell, in land plants | spores | 36 | |
| 1398372302 | in seed plants, the ___ are microscopic | gametophytes | 37 | |
| 1398372303 | this process unites gametes, forming the sporophyte | fertilization | 38 | |
| 1398372304 | plant embryos have these cells, which enhance the transfer of nutrients from parent to embryo | placental transfer (cells) | 39 | |
| 1398372305 | these are sometimes present in maternal tissue adjacent to a plant embryo | placental transfer cells | 40 | |
| 1398372306 | the sporophyte has these organs that produce the spores | sporangia | 41 | |
| 1398372307 | within a sporanguim, these undergo meiosis and generate the haploid spores | sporocytes | 42 | |
| 1398372308 | sporocytes are ___loid | dip | 43 | |
| 1398372309 | the production of gametes occurs within these multicellular organs | gametangia | 44 | |
| 1398372311 | the female gametangia are called these | archegonia | 45 | |
| 1398372312 | the male gametangia are called these | antheridia | 46 | |
| 1398372313 | these are localized regions of cell division at the tips of shoots and roots | apical meristems | 47 | |
| 1398372314 | this structure, produced at apical meristems, protects the body of the plant | outer epidermis | 48 | |
| 1398372315 | leaves are generated by these in most plants | shoot apical meristems | 49 | |
| 1398372316 | the epidermis of land plants has this covering, which consists of polyester and wax polymers | cuticle | 50 | |
| 1398372317 | these two polymers make up the cuticle | polyester, wax | 51 | |
| 1398372318 | this structure acts as waterproofing and microbial protection in land plants | cuticle | 52 | |
| 1398372319 | without roots, plants formed symbiotic associations with fungi called these | mycorrhizae | 53 | |
| 1398372320 | land plants produce these molecules that are the product of secondary metabolic pathways | secondary compounds | 54 | |
| 1398372321 | examples of these include alkaloids, terpenes, tannins, and phenolics such as flavonoids | secondary compounds | 55 | |
| 1398372322 | these three secondary compound classes help defend against herbivores and parasites | alkaloids, terpenes, tannins | 56 | |
| 1398372323 | these are examples of a phenolic | flavonoids | 57 | |
| 1398372324 | flavonoids are this type of compound | phenolic | 58 | |
| 1398372325 | these phenolics absorb harmful UV radiation | flavonoids | 59 | |
| 1398372326 | fossil spores have been found belonging to this geologic period | Ordovician (period) | 60 | |
| 1398372327 | ___ is cells joined into tubes that transport water and nutrients throughout the plant body | vascular tissue | 61 | |
| 1398372328 | most plants have a complex vascular tissue system and therefore are called these | vascular plants | 62 | |
| 1398372329 | these are the three types of plants that do not have an extensive transport system | liverworts, hornworts, mosses | 63 | |
| 1398372330 | nonvascular plants are informally called these | bryophytes | 64 | |
| 1398372331 | bryophytes lack roots and ___ | true leaves | 65 | |
| 1398372332 | bryophytes lack ___ and true leaves | roots | 66 | |
| 1398372333 | club mosses and their relatives make up this group of plants (common name) | lycophytes | 67 | |
| 1398372334 | ferns and their relatives make up this group of plants (common name) | pterophytes | 68 | |
| 1398372335 | the seedless vascular plants consist of these two types of plants | lycophytes, pterophytes | 69 | |
| 1398372336 | the lycophytes and pterophytes are these types of plants | seedless vascular (plants) | 70 | |
| 1398372337 | this is an embryo packaged with a supply of nutrients inside a protective coat | seed | 71 | |
| 1398372338 | the seeds in these plants are not enclosed in chambers | gymnosperms | 72 | |
| 1398372339 | all the flowering plants are in this clade | angiosperms | 73 | |
| 1398372340 | nearly 90% of living plants are these | angiosperms | 74 | |
| 1398372341 | these are the three phyla of bryophytes | Hepatophyta, Anthocerophyta, Bryophyta | 75 | |
| 1398372342 | Hepatophyta includes these plants | liverworts | 76 | |
| 1398372343 | liverworts are in this phylum | Hepatophyta | 77 | |
| 1398372344 | Anthocerophyta includes these plants | hornworts | 78 | |
| 1398372345 | hornworts are in this phylum | Anthocerophyta | 79 | |
| 1398372346 | Bryophyta includes these plants | mosses | 80 | |
| 1398372347 | mosses are in this phylum | Bryophyta | 81 | |
| 1398372348 | the dominant stage of the life cycle of the bryophyte phyla is this | gametophyte | 82 | |
| 1398372349 | these are a mass of green, branched, one-cell-thick filaments that develop from spores in bryophytes | protonemata | 83 | |
| 1398372350 | protonemata in bryophytes produce one or more of these structures, in favorable conditions | "buds" | 84 | |
| 1398372351 | "buds" are formed from these structures in bryophytes | protonemata | 85 | |
| 1398372352 | this is a gamete-producing structure in bryophytes, arising from "buds" | gametophore | 86 | |
| 1398372353 | the two components of the body of a moss gametophyte are a protonema and one or more ___ | gametophores | 87 | |
| 1398372354 | the two components of the body of a moss gametophyte are a ___ and one or more gametophores | protonema | 88 | |
| 1398372355 | these are long, tubular single cells or filaments of cells that anchor gametophytes in bryophytes | rhizoids | 89 | |
| 1398372356 | rhizoids are long, tubular, single cells in these bryophytes | liverworts, hornworts | 90 | |
| 1398372357 | rhizoids are filaments of cells in these bryophytes | mosses | 91 | |
| 1398372358 | some mosses reproduce asexually by forming these, small plantlets that detach from the parent plant and grow into clones | brood bodies | 92 | |
| 1398372359 | a typical bryophyte sporophyte consists of a foot, a seta, and a ___ | sporangium | 93 | |
| 1398372360 | a typical bryophyte sporophyte consists of a foot, a ___, and a sporangium | seta | 94 | |
| 1398372361 | a typical bryophyte sporophyte consists of a ___, a seta, and a sporangium | foot | 95 | |
| 1398372362 | this sporophyte part absorbs nutrients from the gametophyte, in bryophytes | foot | 96 | |
| 1398372363 | this conducts materials obtained by the foot to the sporangium in sporophyte bryophytes | seta | 97 | |
| 1398372364 | the sporangium is also called this, in bryophytes | capsule | 98 | |
| 1398372365 | the seta brings nutrients to this sporophyte part in bryophytes | sporangium | 99 | |
| 1398372366 | this is a ring of interlocking, tooth-like structures in bryophytes | peristome | 100 | |
| 1398372367 | the peristome is situated on this bryophyte sporophyte structure | capsule | 101 | |
| 1398372368 | peristome teeth open under ___ conditions and close under ___ conditions | dry, moist | 102 | |
| 1398372369 | liverworts do not have these, but mosses and hornworts do | stomata | 103 | |
| 1398372370 | these are pores that support photosynthesis by allowing gas exchange between atmosphere and sporophyte interior | stomata | 104 | |
| 1398372371 | these are the main avenues by which water evaporates from the sporophyte | stomata | 105 | |
| 1398372372 | some liverworts are described as this, because their gametophytes have a flattened shape | thalloid | 106 | |
| 1398372373 | some liverworts are called this, because their stemlike gametophytes have many leaflike appendages | leafy | 107 | |
| 1398372374 | these are the two main adjectives to describe various liverworts | leafy, thalloid | 108 | |
| 1398372375 | are there more leafy liverworts or thalloid liverworts? | leafy (liverworts) | 109 | |
| 1398372376 | the sporophyte in this phylum is microscopic | Hepatophyta | 110 | |
| 1398372377 | mosses help retain this nutrient in the soil | nitrogen | 111 | |
| 1398372378 | this genus is called peat moss | Sphagnum | 112 | |
| 1398372379 | Sphagnum is a genus of this type of plant | peat moss | 113 | |
| 1398372380 | Sphagnum forms extensive deposits of partially decayed organic material known as this | peat | 114 | |
| 1398372381 | these compounds keep Sphagnum from decaying readily | phenolic (compounds) | 115 | |
| 1398372382 | lycophytes, ferns, and other seedless vascular plants had well-developed vascular systems by this geologic period | Devonian (period) | 116 | |
| 1398372383 | vascular plants have these derived traits: life cycles with dominant sporophytes, transport in vascular tissues called xylem and phloem, well-developed roots, and leaves with ___ | sporophylls | 117 | |
| 1398372384 | vascular plants have these derived traits: life cycles with dominant sporophytes, transport in vascular tissues called xylem and phloem, well-developed ___, and leaves with sporophylls | roots | 118 | |
| 1398372385 | vascular plants have these derived traits: life cycles with dominant sporophytes, transport in vascular tissues called ___, well-developed roots, and leaves with sporophylls | xylem and phloem | 119 | |
| 1398372386 | vascular plants have these derived traits: life cycles with dominant ___, transport in vascular tissues called xylem and phloem, well-developed roots, and leaves with sporophylls | sporophytes | 120 | |
| 1398372387 | among living vascular plants, this is the larger and more complex plant in the alternation of generations | sporophyte | 121 | |
| 1398372388 | on the underside of a vascular plant's sporophyte's reproductive leaves are spots called these | sori | 122 | |
| 1398372389 | each one of these is a cluster of sporangia in a vascular sporophyte plant | sorus | 123 | |
| 1398372390 | each sorus in a vascular sporophyte plant is a cluster of these | sporangia | 124 | |
| 1398372391 | the gametophyte in vascular plants is ___ but still reproduces using cross-reproduction most commonly | bisexual | 125 | |
| 1398372392 | this conducts most of the water and minerals in a vascular plant | xylem | 126 | |
| 1398372393 | the xylem of most vascular plants include these tube-shaped cells that carry water and minerals up the roots | tracheids | 127 | |
| 1398372394 | tracheids are found in this tissue, in vascular plants | xylem | 128 | |
| 1398372395 | vascular plants are sometimes referred to as these, based on the cell type that they have that nonvascular plants do not have | tracheophytes | 129 | |
| 1398372396 | the water-conducting cells in vascular plants are strengthened by this phenolic polymer | lignin | 130 | |
| 1398372397 | lignin is a ___ polymer | phenolic | 131 | |
| 1398372398 | lignin strengthens these cells | tracheids | 132 | |
| 1398372399 | this tissue has cells arranged into tubes that distribute sugars, amino acids, and other organic products | phloem | 133 | |
| 1398372400 | the first forests formed during this geologic period | Devonian (period) | 134 | |
| 1398372401 | these are organs that absorb water and nutrients from the soil | roots | 135 | |
| 1398372402 | these anchor vascular plants, hence allowing the shoot system to grow taller | roots | 136 | |
| 1398372403 | these tissues in living plants closely resemble stem tissues of early vascular plants in fossils | root(s) | 137 | |
| 1398372404 | these increase the surface area of the plant body and serve as the primary photosynthetic organ of vascular plants | leaves | 138 | |
| 1398372405 | leaves can be classified as one of these two types, based on complexity | microphylls, megaphylls | 139 | |
| 1398372406 | lycophytes have ___phylls | micro | 140 | |
| 1398372407 | microphyll leaves are in this type of plant | lycophyte(s) | 141 | |
| 1398372409 | most vascular plants have ___phylls | mega | 142 | |
| 1398372411 | leaves originated during this period | Devonian (period) | 143 | |
| 1398372413 | microphylls originated from ___ located on the sides of stems | sporangia | 144 | |
| 1398372414 | it is called this when a branch grows above all other branches; this type of growth may have led to megaphylls | overtopping (growth) | 145 | |
| 1398372415 | these are modified leaves that bear sporangia | sporophylls | 146 | |
| 1398372416 | sori grow on the underside of a fern's ___ | sporophylls | 147 | |
| 1398372417 | in lycophytes and gymnosperms, sporophylls form cone-like ___ | strobili | 148 | |
| 1398372418 | strobili are made up of these, in lycophytes and gymnosperms | sporophylls | 149 | |
| 1398372419 | most seedless tracheophytes are ___sporous | homo | 150 | |
| 1398372420 | these species have one type of sporangium that produces one type of spore that develops into a bisexual gametophyte | homosporous | 151 | |
| 1398372421 | these species have two types of sporangia and produce two types of spores | heterosporous | 152 | |
| 1398372422 | these develop into female gametophytes in seedless vascular heterosporous plants | megaspores | 153 | |
| 1398372423 | these develop into male gametophytes in seedless vascular heterosporous plants | microspores | 154 | |
| 1398372424 | all seed plants and some tracheophytes are ___sporous | hetero | 155 | |
| 1398372425 | these are the two phyla that are seedless vascular plants | Lycophyta, Pterophyta | 156 | |
| 1398372426 | club mosses, spike mosses, and quillworts are in this phylum | Lycophyta | 157 | |
| 1398372427 | Lycophyta consists of these three types of plant | club mosses, spike mosses, quillworts | 158 | |
| 1398372428 | Pterophyta consists of these three types of plant | ferns, horsetails, whisk ferns | 159 | |
| 1398372429 | ferns, horsetails, and whisk ferns are in this phylum | Pterophyta | 160 | |
| 1398372430 | Pterophyta was formerly these three phyla | Pterophyta, Sphenophyta, Psilophyta | 161 | |
| 1398372431 | Sphenophyta formerly consisted of these plants | horsetails | 162 | |
| 1398372432 | horsetails were formerly in this phylum | Sphenophyta | 163 | |
| 1398372433 | Psilophyta formerly consisted of these plants | whisk ferns | 164 | |
| 1398372434 | whisk ferns were formerly in this phylum | Psilophyta | 165 | |
| 1398372435 | by this period, there were two main evolutionary lineages of lycophytes | Carboniferous (period) | 166 | |
| 1398372436 | giant tree lycophytes went extinct by the end of this period | Carboniferous (period) | 167 | |
| 1398372437 | pterophytes are most diverse in these regions, but do exist in other regions too | tropic(al regions) | 168 | |
| 1398372438 | this is the genus of horsetails | Equisetum | 169 | |
| 1398372439 | Equisetum is the genus of these pterophytes | horsetails | 170 | |
| 1398372440 | whisk ferns are in this genus | Psilotum | 171 | |
| 1398372441 | Psilotum is the genus of these pterophytes | whisk ferns | 172 | |
| 1398372442 | Psilotum and Tmesipteris are tropical ___ | epiphytes | 173 | |
| 1398372443 | these two genera are commonly referred to as living fossils, since they resemble ancient relatives of living vascular plants | Psilotum, Tmesipteris | 174 | |
| 1398372444 | these are plants that use other plants as a substrate but are not parasites | epiphytes | 175 | |
| 1398372445 | the sporophytes of ferns typically have horizontal stems that give rise to these large leaves | fronds | 176 | |
| 1398372446 | fronds are often divided into these | leaflets | 177 | |
| 1398372447 | one of these grows as its curled tip, a fiddlehead, unfurls | frond(s) | 178 | |
| 1398372448 | these are the curled tips of fronds, in ferns | fiddleheads | 179 | |
| 1398372449 | almost all ferns are ___sporous | homo | 180 | |
| 1398372450 | horsetails have separate stems, called these | fertile, vegetative | 181 | |
| 1398372451 | horsetails are ___sporous | homo | 182 | |
| 1398372452 | horsetails are also called these because their stems have joints | arthrophytes | 183 | |
| 1398372453 | arthrophytes are commonly called these | horsetails | 184 | |
| 1398372454 | each yellow knob on a whisk fern is composed of three fused ___ | sporangia | 185 | |
| 1398372455 | whisk ferns are ___sporous | homo | 186 |
