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| 375021955 | Young Turks | A group in which plotted to force a constitution on the sultan (Abdul Hamid II). This group alienated other anti-Ottoman groups by advocating centralized rule and the Turkification of ethnic minorities. | 0 | |
| 375021956 | Faisal | Arab prince, leader of the Arab Revolt in World War I. The British made him king of Iraq in 1921, and he reigned under British protection until 1933. | 1 | |
| 375021957 | Theodore Herzl | Austrian journalist and founder of the Zionist movement urging the creation of a Jewish national homeland in Palestine. | 2 | |
| 375021958 | Balfour Declaration | Statement issued by Britain's Foreign Secretary Arthur Balfour in 1917 favoring the establishment of a Jewish national homeland in Palestine. | 3 | |
| 375021959 | Bolsheviks | Radical Marxist political party founded by Vladimir Lenin in 1903. Under Lenin's leadership, the Bolsheviks seized power in November 1917 during the Russian Revolution. | 4 | |
| 375021960 | Vladimir Lenin | Leader of the Bolshevik (later Communist) Party. He lived in exile in Switzerland until 1917, then returned to Russia to lead the Bolsheviks to victory during the Russian Revolution and the civil war that followed. | 5 | |
| 375021961 | Fourteen Points | A peace program presented to the U.S. Congress by President Woodrow Wilson in January 1918. It called for the evacuation of German-occupied lands, the drawing of borders and the settling of territorial disputes by the self-determination of the affected populations, and the founding of an association of nations to preserve the peace and guarantee their territorial integrity. It was rejected by Germany, but it made Wilson the moral leader of the Allies in the last year of World War I. | 6 | |
| 375021962 | League of Nations | International organization founded in 1919 to promote world peace and cooperation but greatly weakened by the refusal of the United States to join. It proved ineffectual in stopping aggression by Italy, Japan, and Germany in the 1930s, and it was superseded by the United Nations in 1945. | 7 | |
| 375021963 | Treaty of Versailles | The treaty imposed on Germany by France, Great Britain, the United States, and other Allied Powers after World War I. It demanded that Germany dismantle its military and give up some lands to Poland. It was resented by many Germans. | 8 | |
| 375021964 | New Economic Policy | Policy proclaimed by Vladimir Lenin in 1923 to encourage the revival of the Soviet economy by allowing small private enterprises. Joseph Stalin ended the NEP in 1928 and replaced it with a series of Five-Year Plans. | 9 | |
| 375021965 | Joseph Stalin | Bolshevik revolutionary, head of the Soviet Communist Party after 1924, and dictator of the Soviet Union from 1928 to 1953. He led the Soviet Union with an iron fist, using Five Year Plans to increase industrial production and terror to crush all opposition. | 10 | |
| 375021966 | Leon Trotsky | Commander of the Red Army who had the support of many "Old Bolsheviks". He was expelled for "deviation from the party line". | 11 | |
| 375021967 | Boxer Rebellion | In 1900 China's Empress Dowager Cixi encouraged a secret society, the Righteous Fists, or Boxers, to rise up and expel all the foreigners from China. | 12 | |
| 375021968 | Sun Yat-sen | Chinese nationalist revolutionary, founder and leader of the Guomindang until his death. He attempted to create a liberal democratic political movement in China but was thwarted by military leaders. | 13 | |
| 375021969 | Guomindang | Nationalist political party founded on Democratic principles by Sun Yat-sen in 1912. After 1925, the party was headed by Chiang Kai-shek, who turned it into an increasingly authoritarian movement. | 14 | |
| 375021970 | Chiang Kai-shek | Chinese military and political leader. Succeeded Sun Yat-sen as head of the Guomindang in 1925; headed the Chinese government from 1928 to 1949; fought against the Chinese Communists and Japanese invaders. After 1949 he headed the Chinese Nationalist government in Taiwan. | 15 | |
| 375021971 | Mandate system | Allocation of former German colonies and Ottoman possessions to the victorious powers after World War I, to be administered under League of Nations supervision. | 16 | |
| 375021972 | Mustafa Kemal Ataturk | The founder of modern Turkey. He distinguished himself in the defense of Gallipoli in World War I and expelled a Greek expeditionary army from Anatolia in 1921-1922. He replaced the Ottoman Empire with the Turkish Republic in 1923. As president, he pushed through a radical Westernization and reform of Turkish society. | 17 | |
| 375021973 | Margaret Sanger | American nurse and author; pioneer in the movement for family planning; organized conferences and established birth control clinics. | 18 | |
| 375021974 | Sigmund Freud | Austrian psychiatrist, founder of psychoanalysis. He argued that psychological problems were caused by traumas, especially sexual experiences in early childhood, that were repressed in later life. His ideas caused considerable controversy among psychologists and in the general public. Although his views on repressed sexuality are no longer widely accepted, his psychoanalytic methods are still very influential. | 19 | |
| 375021975 | Five-Year Plans | Plans that Joseph Stalin introduced to industrialize the Soviet Union rapidly, beginning in 1928. They set goals for the output of steel, electricity, machinery, and most other products and were enforced by the police powers of the state. They succeeded in making the Soviet Union a major industrial power before World War II. | 20 | |
| 375809296 | Gulags | About 8 million people were sent to these labor camps, where perhaps a million died each year of exposure or malnutrition. | 21 | |
| 375809297 | Benito Mussolini | Fascist dictator of Italy (1922-1943). He led Italy to conquer Ethiopia (1935), joined Germany in the Axis pact (1936), and allied Italy with Germany in World War II. He was overthrown in 1943 when the allies invaded Italy. | 22 | |
| 375809298 | Mao Zedong | Leader of the Chinese Communist Party (1927-1976). He led the Communists on the Long March (1934-1935) and rebuilt the Communist Party and Red Army during the Japanese occupation of China (1937-1945). After World War II, he lead the Communists to victory over the Guomindang. He ordered the Cultural Revolution in 1966. | 23 | |
| 375809299 | Appeasement | "The weakness of the democracies"; a diplomatic policy aimed at avoiding war by making concessions to an aggressor. | 24 | |
| 375809300 | Long March | The 6,000-mile flight of Chinese Communists from southeastern to northwestern China. The Communists, led by Mao Zedong, were pursued by the Chinese army under the orders of Chiang Kai-shek. The four thousand survivors of the march formed the nucleus of a revived Communist movement that defeated the Guomindang after World War II. | 25 | |
| 375809301 | Blitzkrieg | The German Army, or Wehrmacht, perfected this tactic which literally means "lightning war"; fighter planes scattered enemy troops and disrupted communications, tanks punctured the enemy's defenses, and then, with the help of the infantry, they encircled and captured enemy troops. | 26 | |
| 375809302 | El Alamein | Town in Egypt, site of the victory by Britain's field marshal Bernard Montgomery over German Forces led by General Erwin Rommel (the "Desert Fox") in 1942-1943. | 27 | |
| 375809303 | Stalingrad | City in Russia, site of a Red Army victory over the German army in 1942-1943. The Battle of Stalingrad was the turning point in the war between Germany and the Soviet Union. Today Volgograd. | 28 | |
| 375809304 | Indian National Congress | A movement and political party founded in 1885 to demand greater Indian participation in government. Its membership was middle class, and its demands were modest until World War I. Led after 1920 by Mohandas K, Gandhi, it appealed increasingly to the poor, and it organized mass protests demanding self-government and independence. | 29 | |
| 375881913 | All-India Muslim League | Political organization founded in India in 1906 to defend the interests of India's Muslim minority. Led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, it attempted to negotiate with the Indian National Congress. In 1940, the League began demanding a separate state for Muslims, to be called Pakistan. | 30 | |
| 375881914 | Jawaharlal Nehru | Indian statesman who succeeded Mohandas K. Gandhi as leader of the Indian National Congress. He negotiated the end of British colonial rule in India and became India's first prime minister (1947-1964). | 31 | |
| 375881915 | Muhammad Ali Jinnah | Indian Muslim politician who founded the state of Pakistan. A lawyer by training, he joined the All-India Muslim League in 1913. As leader of the League from the 1920s on, he negotiated with the British and the Indian National Congress for Muslim participation in Indian politics. From 1940 on, he led the movement for the independence of India's Muslims in a separate state of Pakistan, founded in 1947. | 32 | |
| 375881916 | Blaise Diagne | Senegalese political leader. He was the first African elected to the French National Assembly. During World War I, in exchange for promises to give French citizenship to Senegalese, he helped recruit Africans to serve in the French army. After the war, he led a movement to abolish forced labor in Africa. | 33 | |
| 375881917 | Emiliano Zapata | Revolutionary and leader of peasants in the Mexican Revolution. He mobilized landless-peasants in south-central Mexico in an attempt to seize and divide the lands of the wealthy landowners. Though successful for a time, he was ultimately defeated and assassinated. | 34 | |
| 375881918 | Lazaro Cardenas | President of Mexico (1934-1940). He brought major changes to Mexican life by distributing millions of acres of land to the peasants, bringing representatives of workers and farmers into the inner circles of politics, and nationalizing the oil industry. | 35 | |
| 375881919 | Getulio Vargas | Dictator of Brazil from 1930 to 1945 and from 1951 to 1954. Defeated in the presidential election of 1930, he overthrew the government and created Estado Novo ("New State"), a dictatorship that emphasized industrialization and helped the urban poor but did little to alleviate the problems of the peasants. | 36 | |
| 375881920 | Juan Peron | President of Argentina (1946-1955, 1973-1974). As a military officer, he championed the rights of labor. Aided by his wife Eva Duarte Peron, he was elected president in 1946. He built up Argentinean industry, became very popular among the urban poor, but harmed the economy. | 37 | |
| 375881921 | Iron Curtain | Winston Churchill's term for the Cold War division between the Soviet-dominated East and the U.S.-dominated West. | 38 | |
| 375881922 | NATO | Organization formed in 1949 as a military alliance of western European and North American states against the Soviet Union and its east European allies. | 39 | |
| 375881923 | Warsaw Pact | The 1955 treaty binding the Soviet Union and countries of eastern Europe in an alliance against the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. | 40 | |
| 375881924 | World Bank | A specialized agency of the United Nations that makes loans to countries for economic development, trade promotion, and debt consolidation. Its formal name is the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. | 41 | |
| 375881925 | Common Market | An organization promoting economic unity in Europe, formed in 1957 by consolidation of earlier, more limited, agreements. With the addition of many new nations it became the European Union (EU) in 1993. | 42 | |
| 375881926 | Helsinki Accords | Political and human rights agreement signed in Helsinki, Finland, by the Soviet Union and western European countries. | 43 | |
| 375881927 | Kwame Nkrumah | In 1957, he became prime minister of Ghana (formerly the Gold Coast), the first British colony in West Africa to achieve independence. He also spent a decade studying philosophy and theology in the United States, where he absorbed ideas about black pride and independence propounded by W.E.B. Du Bois and Marcus Garvey. | 44 | |
| 375881928 | Ernesto "Che" Guevara | Castro's chief lieutenant who became the main theorist of communist revolution in Latin America, had witnessed the CIA coup in Guatemala firsthand. He died in 1967 while leading an insurgency in Bolivia. | 45 | |
| 375881929 | Fidel Castro | A young lawyer who led a failed uprising in 1953. He returned to Cuba after his conviction and exile to establish a successful revolutionary movement in the countryside that included student groups, labor unions, and supporters of Cuba's traditional parties. | 46 | |
| 375881930 | Nonaligned nations | Developing countries that announced their neutrality in the Cold War. | 47 | |
| 375881931 | Cultural revolution | Campaign in China ordered by Mao Zedong to purge the Communist Party of his opponents and instill revolutionary values in the younger generation. | 48 | |
| 375881932 | OPEC | Organization formed in 1960 by oil-producing states to promote their collective interest in generating revenue from oil. | 49 | |
| 375881933 | Proxy wars | During the Cold War, local or regional wars in which the superpowers armed, trained, and financed the combatants. | 50 | |
| 375881934 | Salvador Allende | Socialist politician elected president of Chile in 1970 and overthrown by the military in 1973. He died during the military attack. | 51 | |
| 375881935 | Dirty War | War waged by the Argentine military (1976-1983) against leftist groups. Characterized by the use of illegal imprisonment, torture, and executions by the military. | 52 | |
| 375881936 | Sandinistas | Members of a leftist coalition that overthrew the Nicaraguan dictatorship of Anastasia Somoza in 1979 and attempted to install a socialist economy. The United States financed armed opposition by the Contras. The Sandinistas lost national elections in 1990. | 53 | |
| 375881937 | Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini | Shi'ite philosopher and cleric who led the overthrow of the shah of Iran in 1979 and created an Islamic republic. | 54 | |
| 375881938 | Neo-liberalism | The term used in Latin America and other developing regions to describe free-market policies that include reducing tariff protection for local industries; the sale of public-sector industries, like national airlines and public utilities, to private investors or foreign corporations; and the reduction of social welfare policies and public sector employment. | 55 | |
| 375881939 | Saddam Hussein | President of Iraq from 1979 until overthrown by an American-led invasion in 2003. Waged war on Iran from 1980 to 1988. His invasion of Kuwait in 1990 was repulsed in the Persian Gulf War in 1991. | 56 | |
| 375881940 | Keiretsu | Alliances of corporations and banks that dominate the Japanese economy. | 57 | |
| 375881941 | Asian Tigers | Collective name for South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Singapore nations that became economic powers in the 1970s and 1980s. | 58 | |
| 377327851 | Deng Xiaoping | Communist party leader who forced Chinese economic reforms after the death of Mao Zedong. | 59 | |
| 377327852 | Tiananmen Square | Site in Beijing where Chinese students and workers gathered to demand greater political openness in 1989. The demonstration was crushed by Chinese military with great loss of life. | 60 | |
| 377327853 | Mikhail Gorbachev | Head of the Soviet Union from 1985 to 1991. His liberalization effort improved relations with the west, but he lost power after his reforms led to the collapse of communist governments in eastern Europe. | 61 | |
| 377327854 | Perestroika | Policy of "restructuring" that was the centerpiece of Mikhail Gorbachev's efforts to liberalize communism in the Soviet Union. | 62 | |
| 377327855 | Solidarity | Polish trade union created in 1980 to protest working conditions and political repression. It began the nationalist opposition to communist rule that led in 1989 to the fall of communism in eastern Europe. | 63 | |
| 377327856 | Thomas Malthus | Eighteenth-century English intellectual who warned that population growth threatened future generations because, in his view, population growth would always outstrip increases in agricultural production. | 64 | |
| 377327857 | Globalization | The economic, political, and cultural integration and interaction of all parts of the world brought about by increasing trade, travel, and technology. | 65 | |
| 377327858 | WTO | An international body established in 1995 to foster and bring order to international trade. | 66 | |
| 377327859 | WMD | Nuclear, chemical, and biological devices that are capable of injuring and killing large numbers of people. | 67 | |
| 377327860 | Mahmoud Ahmedinejad | A relatively unknown conservative who was elected as the president of Iran in 2005. He has taken confrontational positions on international affairs, notably his denial of Israel's legitimacy as a state and his assertion of Iran's right to develop nuclear technology. | 68 | |
| 377327861 | Taliban | An Islamist militant and political group that became a serious threat in 2008 and opium production, the key to the country's unrest, was higher than ever. | 69 | |
| 377327862 | Hamas | In 2007, this elected government succeeded in driving its Palestinian rivals out of the Gaza Strip. | 70 | |
| 377327863 | Osama bin Laden | Saudi-born Muslim extremist who funded the al-Qaeda organization and that was responsible for several terrorists attacks, including those on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon in 2001. | 71 | |
| 377327864 | NGO | Nonprofit international organizations devoted to investigating human rights abuses and providing humanitarian relief. Two NGOs won the Nobel Peace Prize in the 1990s: International Campaign to Ban Landmines (1997) and Doctors Without Borders (1999). | 72 | |
| 377327865 | Cultural imperialism | Domination of one culture over another by a deliberate policy or by economic or technological superiority. | 73 | |
| 377327866 | Fundamentalism | The demand for a strict adherence to specific theological doctrines usually understood as a reaction against Modernist theology, combined with a vigorous attack on outside threats to their religious culture. | 74 |
