Chapter?31: Societies at Crossroads Chapter Outline Introduction: Ottoman empire, Russia, China, and Japan Common problems Military weakness, vulnerability to foreign threats Internal weakness due to?economic problems, financial difficulties, and corruption Reform efforts Attempts at political and?educational reform?and at industrialization Turned to western models Different results of reforms Ottoman empire, Russia, and China unsuccessful; societies on the verge of collapse Reform in Japan was more thorough; Japan emerged as an industrial power The Ottoman empire in decline The nature of decline Military decline since the late seventeenth century Ottoman forces behind European armies in strategy, tactics, weaponry, training Janissary corps politically corrupt, undisciplined