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Anthropology (Chapter 1: What Is Anthropology?) Flashcards

1. Anthropology is the holistic and comparative study of humanity. It is the systematic exploration of human biological and cultural diversity. Examining the origins of, and changes in human biology and culture, anthropology provides explanations for similarities and differences. The four subfields of general anthropology are (socio)cultural, archaeological, biological, and linguistic. All consider variation in time and space. Each also examines adaptation - the process by which organisms cope with environmental stresses.
2. Cultural forces mold human biology, including our body times and images. Societies have particular standards of physical attractiveness. They also have specific ideas about what activities - for example, various sports - are appropriate for males and females.
3. Cultural anthropology explores the cultural diversity of the present and the recent past. Archaeology reconstructs cultural patterns, often of prehistoric populations. Biological anthropology documents diversity involving fossils, genetics, growth and development, bodily responses, and nonhuman primates. Linguistic anthropology considers diversity among languages. It also studies how speech changes in social situations and over time.
4. Concerns with biology, society, culture and language link anthropology to many other fields - sciences and humanities. Anthropologists study art, music and literature across various cultures. But their concern is more with the creative expressions of common people than with arts designed for elites. Anthropologists examine creators and products in their social context. Sociologists traditionally study urban and industrial populations, whereas anthropologists have focused on rural, nonindustrial peoples. Psychological anthropology views human psychology in the context of social and cultural variation.
5. Anthropology has two dimensions: academic and applied.

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299677840	Anthropology	The study of the human species and its immediate ancestors.
299677841	Holistic	Encompassing past, present, and future; biology, society, language and culture.
299677842	Culture	Traditions and customs transmitted through learning.
299677843	General anthropology	Anthropology as a whole: cultural, archaeological, biological, and linguistic anthropology.
299677844	Food production	An economy based on plant cultivation and/or animal domestication.
299677845	Biocultural	Combining biological and cultural approaches to a given problem.
299677846	Ethnology	The study of sociocultural differences and similarities
299677847	Cultural anthropology	The comparative, cross-cultural, study of human society and culture.
299677848	Ethnography	Fieldwork in a particular cultural setting.
299677849	Archaeological anthropology	The study of human behaviour through material remains.
299677850	Biological anthropology	The study of human biological variation in time and space.
299677851	Physical anthropology	Same as biological anthropology
299677852	Linguistic anthropology	The study of language and linguistic diversity in time, space, and society.
299677853	Sociolinguistics	The study of language in society.
299677854	Science	Field of study that seeks reliable explanations, with reference to the material and physical world.
299677855	Applied anthropology	Using anthropology to solve contemporary problems.
299677856	Cultural resource management	Deciding what needs saving when entire archaeological sites cannot be saved.
299677857	Theory	A set of ideas formulated to explain something.
299677858	Association	An observed relationship between two or more variables.
299677859	Hypothesis	A suggested but as yet unverified explanation.
302624323	What characterizes anthropology among disciplines that study humans?	It is holistic and comparative.
302624324	What is a critical element of cultural traditions?	Their transmission through learning rather than through biological inheritance.
302624325	Over time, how has human reliance on cultural means of adaptation changed?	Humans have become increasingly more dependent on them.
302624326	The fact that anthropology focuses on both culture and biology ...	allows it to address how culture influences biological traits and vice versa.
302624327	In Chapter 1, what is the point of describing the ways humans cope with low oxygen pressure at high altitudes?	To illustrate human capacities for cultural and biological adaptation, variation, and change.
302624328	Four field anthropology...	was largely shaped by early American anthropologists' interests in Native Americans.
302624329	The study of nonhuman primates is of special interest to which sub-discipline of anthropology?	Biological anthropology.
302624330	About practicing or applied anthropology, this is false.	It is less relevant for archaeology since archaeology typically concerns the material culture of societies that no longer exist.
302624331	What term is defined as a suggested but yet unverified explanation for observed things and events?	Hypothesis.
302624332	The scientific method...	Characterizes any anthropological endeavour that formulates research questions and gathers or uses systematic data to test hypothesis.

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Chapter 15- The Kennedy and Johnson Years Flashcards

Chapter 15- The Kennedy and Johnson Years

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1282189861	John F. Kennedy	president during part of the cold war and especially during the superpower rivalry and the cuban missile crisis. he was the president who went on tv and told the public about hte crisis and allowed the leader of the soviet uinon to withdraw their missiles. other events, which were during his terms was the building of the berlin wall, the space race, and early events of the Vietnamese war.
1282189862	Richard M. Nixon	He was a committee member of the House of Representatives, Committee on Un-American Activities (to investigate "subversion"). He tried to catch Alger Hiss who was accused of being a communist agent in the 1930's. This brought Nixon to the attention of the American public. In 1956 he was Eisenhower's Vice-President.
1282189863	Fidel Castro	Cuban revolutionary leader who overthrew the corrupt regime of the dictator Fulgencio Batista in 1959 and soon after established a Communist state. He was prime minister of Cuba from 1959 to 1976 and has been president of the government and First Secretary of the Communist Party since 1976.
1282189864	Flexible Response	Flexible response calls for mutual deterrence at strategic, tactical, and conventional levels, giving the United States the capability to respond to aggression across the spectrum of warfare, not limited only to nuclear arms.
1282189865	Peace Corps	(JFK) , volunteers who help third world nations and prevent the spread of communism by getting rid of poverty, Africa, Asia, and Latin America
1282189866	Alliance For Progress	(JFK) 1961,, a program in which the United States tried to help Latin American countries overcome poverty and other problems, money used to aid big business and the military
1282189867	Bay of Pigs Invasion	in 1961, an attempt by Cuban exiles in southern Cuba to overthrow the Cuban socialist government of Fidel Castro; the effort was funded by the U.S. and was famously disastrous
1282189868	Nikita Khrushchev	Stalin's successor, wanted peaceful coexistence with the U.S. Eisenhower agreed to a summit conference with Khrushchev, France and Great Britain in Geneva, Switzerland in July, 1955 to discuss how peaceful coexistence could be achieved.
1282189869	Cuban Missile Crisis	an international crisis in October 1962, the closest approach to nuclear war at any time between the U.S. and the USSR. When the U.S. discovered Soviet nuclear missiles on Cuba, President John F. Kennedy demanded their removal and announced a naval blockade of the island; the Soviet leader Khrushchev acceded to the U.S. demands a week later.
1282189870	Hot Line	a communication link established in 1963 to allow the leaders of the United States and the Soviet Union to contact each other in times of crisis
1282189871	Nuclear Test Ban Treaty	(JFK) 1963, Wake of Cuban Missile Crisis (climax of Cold War, closest weve ever come to nuclear war) Soviets & US agree to prohibit all above-ground nuclear tests, both nations choose to avoid annihilating the human race w/ nuclear war, France and China did not sign
1282189872	Berlin Wall	A fortified wall surrounding West Berlin, Germany, built in 1961 to prevent East German citizens from traveling to the West. Its demolition in 1989 symbolized the end of the Cold War. This wall was both a deterrent to individuals trying to escape and a symbol of repression to the free world.
1282189873	New Frontier	The campaign program advocated by JFK in the 1960 election. He promised to revitalize the stagnant economy and enact reform legislation in education, health care, and civil rights.
1282189874	Equal Pay Act	federal legislation in 1963 that made it illegal to pay women lower wages than men for the job solely because they are women
1282189875	Deficit Spending	practice where a government spends more money that it receives as revenue. Usually refers to the conscious effort to stimulate economic growth by lowering taxes or increasing government expenditures
1282189876	Space Race	Many scientists and military leaders believed that control of space would be very important. Consequently, the USA and USSR invested billions of dollars in developing satellites, space stations, rockets, etc. This investment led to great scientific advances, but also caused friction and insecurities.
1282189877	Lee Harvey Oswald	On November 22, 1963, he assassinated President Kennedy who was riding downtown Dallas, Texas. Oswald was later shot in front of television cameras by Jack Ruby.
1282189878	Warren Commision	1964, national comision headed by Cheif Justice Warren about the assasination of Kennedy, left some unanswered questions and theories about a conspiracy to killl the president
1282189879	Lyndon B. Johnson	signed the civil rights act of 1964 into law and the voting rights act of 1965. he had a war on poverty in his agenda. in an attempt to win, he set a few goals, including the great society, the economic opportunity act, and other programs that provided food stamps and welfare to needy famillies. he also created a department of housing and urban development. his most important legislation was probably medicare and medicaid.
1282189880	Civil Rights Act	LBJ passed this in 1964. Prohibited discrimination of African Americans in employement, voting, or public accomidations. Also said there could be no discrimination against race, color, sex, religion, or national origin.
1282189881	War on Poverty	Lyndon Johnson declared war on poverty in his 1964 State of the Union address. A new Office of Economic Opportunity oversaw a variety of programs to help the poor, including the Job Corps and Head Start.
1282189882	Economic Opportunity Act	Great Society law that established a government office to provide young Americans with job training & a volunteer network that organized social work & education in impoverished areas
1282189883	Great Society	President Johnson called his version of the Democratic reform program the Great Society. In 1965, Congress passed many Great Society measures, including Medicare, civil rights legislation, and federal aid to education.
1282189884	Medicare	A program added to the Social Security system in 1965 that provides hospitalization insurance for the elderly and permits older Americans to purchase inexpensive coverage for doctor fees and other health expenses.
1282189885	Medicaid	A public assistance program established in 1965 to help pay hospital, doctor, and medical bills for people with low incomes.
1282189886	Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965	The Immigration and Nationality Services Act of 1965 (also known as the Hart-Celler Act or the INS Act of 1965) abolished the national-origin quotas that had been in place in the United States since the Immigration Act of 1924. An annual limitation of 170,000 visas was established for immigrants from Eastern Hemisphere countries with no more than 20,000 per country. By 1968, the annual limitation from the Western Hemisphere was set at 120,000 immigrants, with visas available on a first-come, first-served basis. The democratic controlled Congress (House of Representatives voted 326 to 69) in favor while the Senate passed the bill by a vote of (76 to 18). President Lyndon Johnson signed the legislation into law.
1282189887	Warren Court	The Warren Court was led by Earl Warren who was nominated by president Eisenhower to be Chief of Justice. The court took an activist stance, helping to shape national policy by taking a forceful stand on a number of key issues of the day.

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Psychology Ch. 13 Stress, Coping, & Health Flashcards

Stress, Coping, & Health

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1122934673	Biopsychosocial Model	Physical illness is caused by a complex of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors
1122934674	Health Psychology	Concerned with how psychosocial factors relate to the promotion and maintenance of health and with the causation, prevention, and treatment of illness
1122934675	Stress	Any circumstances that threaten or are perceived to threaten one's well-being and that thereby tax one's coping abilities
1122934676	Frustration	Occurs in any situation in which the pursuit of some goal is thwarted
1122934677	Conflict	When two or more incompatible motivations or behavioral impulses compete for expression
1122934678	Approach-Approach Conflict	A choice must be made between two attractive goals
1122934679	Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict	A choice must be made between two unattractive goals
1122934680	Approach-Avoidance Conflict	A choice must be made about whether to pursue a single goal that has both attractive and unattractive aspects
1122934681	Life Changes	Any noticeable alterations in one's living circumstances that require readjustment
1122934682	Pressure	Expectations or demands that one behave in a certain way
1122934683	Fight-or-Fight Response	A psychological reaction to threat in which the autonomic nervous system mobilizes the organism for attacking (fight) or fleeing (flight) an enemy
1122934684	General Adaption Syndrome	A model of the bodies stress response, consisting of three stages: alarm, resistance, & exhaustion
1122934685	Coping	Active efforts to master, reduce, or tolerate, the demands created by stress
1122934686	Aggresion	Any behavior that is intended to hurt someone, either physically or verbally
1122934687	Catharsis	Release of emotional tension
1122934688	Internet Addiction	Spending an inordinate amount of time on the internet and inability to control online use
1122934689	Defense Mechanisms	Largely unconscious reactions that protect people from unpleasant emotions such as anxiety and guilt
1122934690	Constructive Coping	Relatively healthful efforts that people make to deal with stressful events
1122934691	Burnout	Physical, mental, and emotional exhaustion that is attributed to long-term involvement in emotionally demanding situations
1122934692	PTSD	Enduring psychological disturbance attributed to the experience of a major traumatic event
1122934693	Psychosomatic Diseases	Physical ailments with a genuine organic basis that are caused in part by psychological factors, especially emotional distress
1122934694	Type A Personality	Includes 3 elements: (1) a strong competitive orientation, (2) impatience and time urgency, and (3) anger and hostility
1122934695	Type B Personality	Marked by relatively relaxed, patient, easy going, amicable behavior
1122934696	Immune Response	The body's defensive reaction to invasion by bacteria, viral agents, or other foreign substances
1122934697	Social Support	Various types of aid and succor provided b members of one's social networks
1122934698	Optimism	A general tending to expect good outcomes
1122934699	AIDS	A disorder in which the immune system is gradually weakened and eventually disabled by HIV
1122934700	Rational Emotive Therapy	An approach that focuses on altering clients' patterns of irrational thinking to reduce maladaptive emotions and behavior
1122934701	Catastrophic Thinking	Involves unrealistically negative appraisals of stress that exaggerate the magnitude of one's problems

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Campbell's Biology, 9e (Reece et al.) Chapter 36 Resource Acquisition and Transport in Vascular Plants Flashcards

This chapter is often one of the most difficult for students to master because it draws upon the information in several previous chapters, as well as basic concepts in chemistry and physics, to explain water potential and the movement of nutrients and water in plants. The coordination and interdependency of cells, tissues, organs, and systems in transport are stressed as well as the importance of maintaining water balance while allowing for sufficient gas exchange to maximize carbon acquisition.

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1220018243	1) All of the following are plant adaptations to life on land except A) tracheids and vessels. B) root hairs. C) cuticle. D) the Calvin cycle of photosynthesis. E) collenchyma.	D
1220018244	The ancestors of land plants were aquatic algae. Which of the following is not an evolutionary adaptation to life on land? A) C3 photosynthesis B) a waxy cuticle C) root hairs D) xylem and phloem E) guard cells	A
1220018245	Most angiosperms have alternate phyllotaxy. What allows each leaf to get the maximum exposure to light and reduces shading of lower leaves? A) a leaf area index above 8 B) self-pruning C) one leaf only per node D) leaf emergence at an angle of 137.5°F from the site of previous leaves E) a leaf area index above 8 and leaf emergence at an angle of 137.5°F from the site of previous leaves	D
1220018246	A plant developed a mineral deficiency after being treated with a fungicide. What is the most probable cause of the deficiency? A) Mineral receptor proteins in the plant membrane were not functioning. B) Mycorrhizal fungi were killed. C) Active transport of minerals was inhibited. D) The genes for the synthesis of transport proteins were destroyed. E) Proton pumps reversed the membrane potential.	B
1220018247	If you were to prune the shoot tips of a plant, what would be the effect on the plant and the leaf area index? A) bushier plants; lower leaf area index B) tall plants; lower leaf area index C) tall plants; higher leaf area index D) short plants; lower leaf area index E) bushier plants; higher leaf area indexes	E
1220018248	Which structure or compartment is not part of the plant's apoplast? A) the lumen of a xylem vessel B) the lumen of a sieve tube C) the cell wall of a mesophyll cell D) the cell wall of a transfer cell E) the cell wall of a root hair	B
1220018249	Which of the following would be least likely to affect osmosis in plants? A) proton pumps in the membrane B) a difference in solute concentrations C) receptor proteins in the membrane D) aquaporins E) a difference in water potential	C
1220018250	Active transport involves all of the following except the A) diffusion of solute through the lipid bilayer of a membrane. B) pumping of solutes across the membrane. C) hydrolysis of ATP. D) transport of solute against a concentration gradient. E) specific transport protein in the membrane.	A
1220018251	Active transport of various materials in plants at the cellular level requires all of the following except A) a proton gradient. B) ATP. C) membrane potential. D) transport proteins E) xylem membranes.	E
1220018252	Which of the following is not a function of the plasma membrane proton pump? A) hydrolyzes ATP B) produces a proton gradient C) generates a membrane potential D) equalizes the charge on each side of a membrane E) stores potential energy on one side of a membrane	D
1220018253	Given that early land plants most likely share a common ancestor with green algae, the earliest land plants were most likely A) nonvascular plants that grew leafless photosynthetic shoots above the shallow fresh water in which they lived. B) species that did not exhibit alternation of generations. C) vascular plants with well-defined root systems. D) plants with well-developed leaves. E) species with a well-developed, thick cuticle.	A
1220018254	The movement of water across biological membranes can best be predicted by A) negative charges in the cell wall. B) prevailing weather conditions. C) aquaporins. D) level of active transport. E) water potential.	E
1220018255	An open beaker of pure water has a water potential (Ψ) of A) -0.23 MPa. B) +0.23 MPa. C) +0.07 MPa. D) -0.0000001 MPa. E) 0.0 (zero).	E
1220018256	All of the following have an effect on water potential (Ψ) in plants except A) physical pressure. B) water-attracting matrices. C) dissolved solutes. D) osmosis. E) DNA structure.	E
1220018257	If ΨP = 0.3 MPa and ΨS = -0.45 MPa, the resulting Ψ is A) +0.75 MPa. B) -0.75 MPa. C) -0.15 MPa. D) +0.15 MPa. E) -0.42 MPa.	C
1220018258	The value for Ψ in root tissue was found to be -0.15 MPa. If you take the root tissue and place it in a 0.1 M solution of sucrose (Ψ = -0.23 MPa), the net water flow would A) be from the tissue into the sucrose solution. B) be from the sucrose solution into the tissue. C) be in both directions and the concentrations would remain equal. D) occur only as ATP was hydrolyzed in the tissue. E) be impossible to determine from the values given here.	A
1220018259	Compared to a cell with few aquaporins in its membrane, a cell containing many aquaporins will A) have a faster rate of osmosis. B) have a lower water potential. C) have a higher water potential. D) have a faster rate of active transport. E) be flaccid.	A
1220018260	Some botanists argue that the entire plant should be considered as a single unit rather than a composite of many individual cells. Which of the following cellular structures cannot be used to support this view? A) cell wall B) cell membrane C) cytosol D) tonoplast E) symplast	D
1220018261	Which of the following statements is false about bulk flow? A) It is driven primarily by pressure potential. B) It is more effective than diffusion over distances greater than 100 μm. C) It depends on a difference in pressure potential at the source and sink. D) It depends on the force of gravity on a column of water. E) It may be the result of either positive or negative pressure potential.	D
1220018262	Which of the following would likely not contribute to the surface area available for water absorption from the soil by a plant root system? A) root hairs B) endodermis C) mycorrhizae D) fungi associated with the roots E) fibrous arrangement of the roots	B
1220018263	Root hairs are most important to a plant because they A) anchor a plant in the soil. B) store starches. C) increase the surface area for absorption. D) provide a habitat for nitrogen-fixing bacteria. E) contain xylem tissue.	C
1220018264	A water molecule could move all the way through a plant from soil to root to leaf to air and pass through a living cell only once. This living cell would be a part of which structure? A) the Casparian strip B) a guard cell C) the root epidermis D) the endodermis E) the root cortex	D
1220018265	All of the following involve active transport across membranes except A) the movement of mineral nutrients from the apoplast to the symplast. B) the movement of sugar from mesophyll cells into sieve-tube elements. C) the movement of sugar from one sieve-tube element to the next. D) the movement of K+ across guard cell membranes during stomatal opening. E) the movement of mineral nutrients into cells of the root cortex.	C
1220018266	Which of the following statements about xylem is incorrect? A) It conducts material from root tips to leaves. B) The conducting cells are part of the apoplast. C) It transports mainly sugars and amino acids. D) It typically has a lower water potential than is found in soil. E) No energy input is required for transport.	C
1220018267	What is the role of proton pumps in root hair cells? A) establish ATP gradients B) maintain the H+ gradient C) pressurize xylem transport D) eliminate excess electrons E) assist in active uptake of water molecules	B
1220018268	In plant roots, the Casparian strip is correctly described by which of the following? A) It aids in the uptake of nutrients. B) It provides energy for the active transport of minerals into the stele from the cortex. C) It ensures that all minerals are absorbed from the soil in equal amounts. D) It ensures that all water and dissolved substances must pass through a cell membrane before entering the stele. E) It provides increased surface area for the absorption of mineral nutrients.	D
1220018269	Which of the following is not an important component of the long-distance transport process in plants? A) the cohesion of water molecules B) a negative water potential C) the root parenchyma D) the active transport of solutes E) bulk flow from source to sink	C
1220018270	Pine seedlings grown in sterile potting soil grow much slower than seedlings grown in soil from the area where the seeds were collected. This is most likely because A) the sterilization process kills the root hairs as they emerge from the seedling. B) the normal symbiotic fungi are not present in the sterilized soil. C) sterilization removes essential nutrients from the soil. D) water and mineral uptake is faster when mycorrhizae are present. E) B and D.	E
1220018271	The following factors may sometimes play a role in the movement of sap through xylem. Which one depends on the direct expenditure of ATP by the plant? A) capillarity of water within the xylem B) evaporation of water from leaves C) cohesion among water molecules D) concentration of ions in the symplast E) bulk flow of water in the root apoplast	D
1220018272	One is most likely to see guttation in small plants when the A) transpiration rates are high. B) root pressure exceeds transpiration pull. C) preceding evening was hot, windy, and dry. D) water potential in the stele of the root is high. E) roots are not absorbing minerals from the soil.	B
1220018273	One would expect to find the highest density of aquaporins in which of the following? A) the plasma membrane of guard cells B) the pits of a tracheid C) the plasma membrane of parenchyma cells in a ripe fruit D) the plasma membrane of a mature mesophyll cell in a leaf E) the membrane lining plasmodesmata	A
1220018274	If isolated plant cells with a water potential averaging -0.5 MPa are placed into a solution with a water potential of -0.3 MPa, which of the following would be the most likely outcome? A) The pressure potential of the cells would increase. B) Water would move out of the cells. C) The cell walls would rupture, killing the cells. D) Solutes would move out of the cells. E) The osmotic pressure of the cells would decrease.	A
1220018275	What drives the flow of water through the xylem? A) passive transport by the endodermis B) the number of companion cells in the phloem C) the evaporation of water from the leaves D) active transport by sieve-tube elements E) active transport by tracheid and vessel elements	C
1220018276	What is the main force by which most of the water within xylem vessels moves toward the top of a tree? A) active transport of ions into the stele B) atmospheric pressure on roots C) evaporation of water through stoma D) the force of root pressure E) osmosis in the root	C
1220018277	In which plant cell or tissue would the pressure component of water potential most often be negative? A) leaf mesophyll cell B) stem xylem C) stem phloem D) root cortex cell E) root epidermis	B
1220018278	Water potential is generally most negative in which of the following parts of a plant? A) mesophyll cells of the leaf B) xylem vessels in leaves C) xylem vessels in roots D) cells of the root cortex E) root hairs	A
1220018279	Which of the following has the lowest (most negative) water potential? A) root cortical cells B) root xylem C) trunk xylem D) leaf cell walls E) leaf air spaces	E
1220018280	Which of the following is responsible for the cohesion of water molecules? A) hydrogen bonds between the oxygen atoms of a water molecule and cellulose in a vessel cell B) covalent bonds between the hydrogen atoms of two adjacent water molecules C) hydrogen bonds between the oxygen atom of one water molecule and a hydrogen atom of another water molecule D) covalent bonds between the oxygen atom of one water molecule and a hydrogen atom of another water molecule E) low concentrations of charged solutes in the fluid	C
1220018281	Transpiration in plants requires all of the following except A) adhesion of water molecules to cellulose. B) cohesion between water molecules. C) evaporation of water molecules. D) active transport through xylem cells. E) transport through tracheids.	D
1220018282	Which of the following statements about transport in plants is false? A) Weak bonding between water molecules and the walls of xylem vessels or tracheids helps support the columns of water in the xylem. B) Hydrogen bonding between water molecules, which results in the high cohesion of the water, is essential for the rise of water in tall trees. C) Although some angiosperm plants develop considerable root pressure, this is not sufficient to raise water to the tops of tall trees. D) Most plant physiologists now agree that the pull from the top of the plant resulting from transpiration is sufficient, when combined with the cohesion of water, to explain the rise of water in the xylem in even the tallest trees. E) Gymnosperms can sometimes develop especially high root pressure, which may account for the rise of water in tall pine trees without transpiration pull.	E
1220018283	Active transport would be least important in the normal functioning of which of the following plant tissue types? A) leaf transfer cells B) stem tracheary elements C) root endodermal cells D) leaf mesophyll cells E) root sieve-tube elements	B
1220018284	Which of the following statements is false concerning the xylem? A) Xylem tracheids and vessels fulfill their vital function only after their death. B) The cell walls of the tracheids are greatly strengthened with cellulose fibrils forming thickened rings or spirals. C) Water molecules are transpired from the cells of the leaves, and replaced by water molecules in the xylem pulled up from the roots due to the cohesion of water molecules. D) Movement of materials is by mass flow; solutes in xylary sap move due to a positive turgor pressure gradient from source to sink. E) In the morning, sap in the xylem begins to move first in the twigs of the upper portion of the tree, and later in the lower trunk.	D
1220018285	Xylem vessels, found in angiosperms, have a much greater internal diameter than tracheids, the only xylem-conducting cells found in gymnosperms. The tallest living trees, redwoods, are gymnosperms. Which of the following is an advantage of tracheids over vessels for long-distance transport to great heights? A) Adhesive forces are proportionally greater in narrower cylinders than in wider cylinders. B) The smaller the diameter of the xylem, the more likely cavitation will occur. C) Cohesive forces are greater in narrow tubes than in wide tubes of the same height. D) Adhesive forces are proportionally greater in narrower cylinders than in wider cylinders, and cohesive forces are greater in narrow tubes than in wide tubes of the same height. E) Adhesive forces are proportionally greater in narrower cylinders than in wider cylinders, and the smaller the diameter of the xylem, the more likely cavitation will occur.	D
1220018286	Water rises in plants primarily by cohesion-tension. Which of the following is not true about the cohesion-tension model? A) Water loss (transpiration) is the driving force for water movement. B) The "tension" of this model represents the excitability of the xylem cells. C) Cohesion represents the tendency for water molecules to stick together by hydrogen bonds. D) The physical forces in the capillary-sized xylem cells make it easier to overcome gravity. E) The water potential of the air is more negative than the xylem.	B
1220018287	Assume that a particular chemical interferes with the establishment and maintenance of proton gradients across the membranes of plant cells. All of the following processes would be directly affected by this chemical except A) photosynthesis. B) phloem loading. C) xylem transport. D) cellular respiration. E) stomatal opening.	C
1220018288	Which cells in a root form a protective barrier to the vascular system where all materials must move through the symplast? A) pericycle B) cortex C) epidermis D) endodermis E) exodermis	D
1220018289	Guard cells do which of the following? A) protect the endodermis B) accumulate K+ and close the stomata C) contain chloroplasts that import K+ directly into the cells D) guard against mineral loss through the stomata E) help balance the photosynthesis-transpiration compromise	E
1220018290	All of the following normally enter the plant through the roots except A) carbon dioxide. B) nitrogen. C) potassium. D) water. E) calcium.	A
1220018291	Photosynthesis begins to decline when leaves wilt because A) chloroplasts within wilted leaves are incapable of photosynthesis. B) CO2 accumulates in the leaves and inhibits the enzymes needed for photosynthesis. C) there is insufficient water for photolysis during the light reactions. D) stomata close, restricting CO2 entry into the leaf. E) wilted leaves cannot absorb the red and blue wavelengths of light.	D
1220018292	The water lost during transpiration is a side effect of the plant's exchange of gases. However, the plant derives some benefit from this water loss in the form of A) evaporative cooling. B) mineral transport. C) increased turgor. D) increased growth, E) only evaporative cooling and mineral transport.	E
1220018293	Ignoring all other factors, what kind of day would result in the fastest delivery of water and minerals to the leaves of a tree? A) cool, dry day B) warm, dry day C) warm, humid day D) cool, humid day E) very hot, dry, windy day	B
1220018294	If the guard cells and surrounding epidermal cells in a plant are deficient in potassium ions, all of the following would occur except A) photosynthesis would decrease. B) roots would take up less water. C) phloem transport rates would decrease. D) leaf temperatures would decrease. E) stomata would be closed.	D
1220018295	The opening of stomata is thought to involve A) an increase in the solute concentration of the guard cells. B) a decrease in the solute concentration of the stoma. C) active transport of water out of the guard cells. D) decreased turgor pressure in guard cells. E) movement of K+ from the guard cells.	A
1220018296	Which of the following experimental procedures would most likely reduce transpiration while allowing the normal growth of a plant? A) subjecting the leaves of the plant to a partial vacuum B) increasing the level of carbon dioxide around the plant C) putting the plant in drier soil D) decreasing the relative humidity around the plant E) injecting potassium ions into the guard cells of the plant	B
1220018297	Guard cells are the only cells in the epidermis that contain chloroplasts and can undergo photosynthesis. This is important because A) chloroplasts sense when light is available so that guard cells will open. B) photosynthesis provides the energy necessary for contractile proteins to flex and open the guard cells. C) guard cells will produce the O2 necessary to power active transport. D) ATP is required to power proton pumps in the guard cell membranes. E) chloroplasts sense when light is available so that guard cells will open and guard cells will produce the O2 necessary to power active transport.	D
1220018298	All of the following are adaptations that help reduce water loss from a plant except A) transpiration. B) sunken stomata. C) C4 photosynthesis. D) small, thick leaves. E) crassulacean acid metabolism.	A
1220018299	Which of the following best explains why very few CAM plants are tall? A) They have difficulty moving water and minerals to the top of the plant during the day. B) They would be unable to supply sufficient sucrose for active transport of minerals into the roots during the day or night. C) Transpiration occurs only at night, and this would cause a highly negative Ψ in the roots of a tall plant during the day. D) Since the stomata are closed in the leaves, the Casparian strip is closed in the endodermis of the root. E) With the stomata open at night, the transpiration rate would limit plant height.	A
1220018300	As a biologist, it is your job to look for plants that have evolved structures with a selective advantage in dry, hot conditions. Which of the following adaptations would be least likely to meet your objective? A) CAM plants that grow rapidly B) small, thick leaves with stomata on the lower surface C) a thick cuticle on fleshy leaves D) large, fleshy stems with the ability to carry out photosynthesis E) plants that do not produce abscisic acid and have a short, thick taproot	E
1220018301	A primary result for stomatal closure on a hot, dry day would be A) release of K+ ions to the apoplast and subsidiary cells. B) displacement of Ca++ ions from the thick inner walls of the guard cells. C) disassembly of the microfibrils in the cell walls of the subsidiary cells. D) upregulation of aquaporin synthesis. E) downregulation of extension proteins.	A
1220018302	What is the driving force for the movement of solutes in the phloem of plants? A) gravity B) a difference in water potential (Ψ) between the source and the sink C) root pressure D) transpiration of water through the stomata E) adhesion of water to phloem sieve tubes	B
1220018303	Phloem transport of sucrose is often described as going from source to sink. Which of the following would not normally function as a sink? A) growing leaf B) growing root C) storage organ in summer D) mature leaf E) shoot tip	D
1220018304	Which of the following is a correct statement about sugar movement in phloem? A) Diffusion can account for the observed rates of transport. B) Movement can occur both upward and downward in the plant. C) Sugar is translocated from sinks to sources. D) Only phloem cells with nuclei can perform sugar movement. E) Sugar transport does not require energy.	B
1220018305	Phloem transport is described as being from source to sink. Which of the following would most accurately complete this statement about phloem transport as applied to most plants in the late spring? Phloem transports ________ from the ________ source to the ________ sink. A) amino acids; root; mycorrhizae B) sugars; leaf; apical meristem C) nucleic acids; flower; root D) proteins; root; leaf E) sugars; stem; root	B
1220018306	Arrange the following five events in an order that explains the mass flow of materials in the phloem. 1. Water diffuses into the sieve tubes. 2. Leaf cells produce sugar by photosynthesis. 3. Solutes are actively transported into sieve tubes. 4. Sugar is transported from cell to cell in the leaf. 5. Sugar moves down the stem. A) 2, 1, 4, 3, 5 B) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 C) 2, 4, 3, 1, 5 D) 4, 2, 1, 3, 5 E) 2, 4, 1, 3, 5	C
1220018307	Water flows into the source end of a sieve tube because A) sucrose has diffused into the sieve tube, making it hypertonic. B) sucrose has been actively transported into the sieve tube, making it hypertonic. C) water pressure outside the sieve tube forces in water. D) the companion cell of a sieve tube actively pumps in water. E) sucrose has been transported out of the sieve tube by active transport.	B
1220018308	Which one of the following statements about transport of nutrients in phloem is false? A) Solute particles can be actively transported into phloem at the source. B) Companion cells control the rate and direction of movement of phloem sap. C) Differences in osmotic concentration at the source and sink cause a hydrostatic pressure gradient to be formed. D) A sink is that part of the plant where a particular solute is consumed or stored. E) A sink may be located anywhere in the plant.	B
1220018309	According to the pressure flow hypothesis of phloem transport, A) solute moves from a high concentration in the source to a lower concentration in the sink. B) water is actively transported into the source region of the phloem to create the turgor pressure needed. C) the combination of a high turgor pressure in the source and transpiration water loss from the sink moves solutes through phloem conduits. D) the formation of starch from sugar in the sink increases the osmotic concentration. E) the pressure in the phloem of a root is normally greater than the pressure in the phloem of a leaf.	A
1220018310	Plants do not have a circulatory system like that of some animals. If a water molecule did "circulate" (that is, go from one point in a plant to another and back in the same day), it would require the activity of A) only the xylem. B) only the phloem. C) only the endodermis. D) both the xylem and the endodermis. E) both the xylem and the phloem.	E
1220018311	Long-distance electrical signaling in the phloem has been shown to elicit a change in all of the following except A) rapid leaf movement. B) gene transcription. C) a switch from C4 to C3 photosynthesis. D) gene transcription. E) phloem unloading.	C
1220018312	Plasmodesmata can change in number, and when dilated can provide a passageway for A) macromolecules such as RNA and proteins. B) ribosomes. C) chloroplasts. D) mitochondria. E) cytoskeletal components.	A
1220018313	What is the main cause of guttation in plants? A) root pressure B) transpiration C) pressure flow in phloem D) plant injury E) condensation of atmospheric water	A
1220018314	A fellow student brought in a leaf to be examined. The leaf was dark green, thin, had stoma on the lower surface only, and had a total surface area of 10 square meters. Where is the most likely environment where this leaf was growing? A) a dry, sandy region B) a large, still pond C) a tropical rain forest D) an oasis within a grassland E) the floor of a deciduous forest	C
1220018315	Several tomato plants are growing in a small garden plot. If soil water potential were to drop significantly on a hot summer afternoon, which of the following would most likely occur? A) Stomatal apertures would decrease. B) Transpiration would increase. C) The leaves would become more turgid. D) The uptake of CO2 would be enhanced. E) The proton gradient would dissipate.	A
1220018316	The symplast transports all of the following except A) sugars. B) mRNA. C) DNA. D) proteins. E) viruses.	C
1220018317	Which of the following is an adaptation that enhances the uptake of water and minerals by roots? A) mycorrhizae B) cavitation C) active uptake by vessel elements D) rhythmic contractions by cortical cells E) pumping through plasmodesmata	A
1220018318	Which structure or compartment is part of the symplast? A) the interior of a vessel element B) the interior of a sieve tube C) the cell wall of a mesophyll cell D) an extracellular air space E) the cell wall of a root hair	B
1220018319	Movement of phloem sap from a source to a sink A) occurs through the apoplast of sieve-tube elements. B) depends ultimately on the activity of proton pumps. C) depends on tension, or negative pressure potential. D) depends on pumping water into sieve tubes at the source. E) results mainly from diffusion.	B
1220018322	Photosynthesis ceases when leaves wilt, mainly because A) the chlorophyll in wilting leaves is degraded. B) flaccid mesophyll cells are incapable of photosynthesis. C) stomata close, preventing CO2 from entering the leaf. D) photolysis, the water-splitting step of photosynthesis, cannot occur when there is a water deficiency. E) accumulation of CO2 in the leaf inhibits enzymes.	C
1220018324	What would enhance water uptake by a plant cell? A) decreasing the Ψ of the surrounding solution B) increasing the pressure exerted by the cell wall C) the loss of solutes from the cell D) increasing the Ψ of the cytoplasm E) positive pressure on the surrounding solution	E
1220018326	A plant cell with a ΨS of -0.65 MPa maintains a constant volume when bathed in a solution that has a ΨS of -0.30 MPa and is in an open container. The cell has a A) ΨP of +0.65 MPa. B) Ψ of -0.65 MPa. C) ΨP of +0.35 MPa. D) ΨP of +0.30 MPa. E) Ψ of 0 MPa.	C
1220018328	Compared with a cell with few aquaporins in its membrane, a cell containing many aquaporins will A) have a faster rate of osmosis. B) have a lower water potential. C) have a higher water potential. D) have a faster rate of active transport. E) accumulate water by active transport.	A
1220018331	Which of the following would tend to increase transpiration? A) a rainstorm B) sunken stomata C) a thicker cuticle D) higher stomatal density E) spiny leaves	D

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APES Review: "140 Ways to go APE(S)" Flashcards

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62042994	Ionizing Radiation	enough energy to dislodge electrons from atoms, forming ions; capable of causing cancer (gamma, X-rays, UV)
62042995	High Quality Energy	organized and concentrated; can perform useful work (fossil fuel and nuclear)
62042996	Low Quality Energy	disorganized, dispersed (heat in ocean or air wind, solar)
62042997	First Law of Thermodynamics	energy is neither created nor destroyed, but may be converted from one form to another ( Law of Conservation of Energy)
62042998	Second law of Thermodynamics	when energy is changed from one form to another, some useful energy is always degraded into lower quality energy, usually heat
62042999	Natural radioactive decay	unstable radioisotopes decay releasing gamma rays, alpha particles, and beta particles
62043000	Half-life	the time it takes for 1/2 the mass of a radioisotope to decay
62043001	Estimate of how long a radioactive isotope must be stored until it decays to a safe level	approximately 10 half-lives
62043002	Nuclear Fission	nuclei of isotopes split apart when struck by neutrons
62043003	Nuclear Fusion	two isotopes of light elements (H) forced together at high temperatures until they fuse to form a heavier nucleus (He). Process is expensive; break-even point not reached yet
62043004	Ore	a rock that contains a large enough concentration of a mineral making it profitable to mine
62043829	Organic fertilizer	slow-acting and long-lasting because the organic remains need time to be decomposed
62043830	Best solutions to energy shortage	conservation, increase efficiency, explore alternative energy options
62043831	Surface mining	cheaper and can remove more minerals; less hazardous to workers
62043832	Humus	organic, dark material remaining after decomposition by microorganisms
62043833	Leaching	removal of dissolved materials from soil by water moving downwards
62043834	Illuviation	deposit of leached material in lower soil layers (B)
62043835	Loam	perfect agricultural soil with equal portions of sand, silt, clay (40%, 40%, 20%)
62043836	Conservation	allowing the use of resources in a responsible manner
62043837	Preservation	setting aside areas and protecting them from human activities
62043838	Parts of the hydrologic cycle	evaporation, transpiration, runoff, condensation, precipitation, infiltration
62043839	Aquifer	any water-bearing layer in the ground
62043840	Cone of depression	lowering of the water table around a pumping well
62043841	Salt water intrusion	near the coast, over-pumping of groundwater causes saltwater to move into the aquifer
62043842	ENSO	El Nino Southern Oscillation, see-sawing of air pressure over the South Pacific
62043843	During an El Nino Year	trade winds weaken and warm water sloshes back to South Atlantic
62043844	During a non El Nino year	easterly trade winds and ocean currents pool warm water in the western Pacific, allowing upwelling of nutrient rich water off the west coast of South America
62043845	Effects of El Nino	upwelling decreases, disrupting food chains; North U.S. has mild winters, Southwest U.S. has increased rainfall, less Atlantic hurricanes
62043846	Nitrogen fixing	because atmospheric nitrogen cannot be used directly by plants it must first be converted into ammonia (NH3) by bacteria (rhizobium)
62043847	Ammonification	decomposers convert organic waste into ammonia
62043848	Nitrification	ammonia (NH3) is converted to nitrate ions (NO3-)
62043849	Assimilation	inorganic nitrogen is converted into organic molecules such as DNA/amino acids and proteins
62237927	Phosphorous does not circulate as easily as nitrogen because	it does not exist as a gas, but is released by weathering of phosphate (PO4)3- rocks
62237928	Sustainability	the ability to meet the current needs of humanity without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs
62237929	How excess phosphorous is added to aquatic ecosystems	runoff of animal wastes, fertilizer, discharge of sewage
62237930	Photosynthesis	plants convert atmospheric carbon (CO2) into complex carbohydrates (C6H1206)
62237931	Aerobic respiration	O2-consuming producers, consumers and decomposers break down complex organic compounds and convert C back into CO2
62254902	Largest reservoirs of carbon	1) carbonate rocks. 2) oceans
62254903	Biotic and abiotic	living and nonliving components of an ecosystem
62254904	Producer/Autotroph	photosynthetic or chemosynthetic life
62254905	Fecal coliform/Enterococcus bacteria	indicater of sewage contamination
62254906	Energy flow in food webs	only 10% of the usable energy is transferred because usable energy is lost as heat (second law of thermodynamics); not all biomass is digested and absorbed; predators expend energy to catch prey
62254907	Good chlorine	disinfects water
62254908	Bad chlorine	forms trihalomethanes
62254909	Primary succession	development of communities in a lifeless area not previously inhabited by life, or those in which the soil profile is totally destroyed (lava flows); begins with lichen action
62254910	Secondary succession	life progresses where soil remains (clear-cut forests, fire)
62254911	Cogeneration	using waste heat to make electricity
62254912	Mutualism	symbiotic relationship where both partners benefit
62254913	Commensalism	symbiotic relationship where one partner benefits and the other is unaffected
62254914	Parasitism	relationship in which one partner obtains nutrients at the expense of the host
62254915	Biome	large distinct terrestrial region having similar climate, soil, plants and animals
62254916	Carrying capacity	the number of individuals that can be sustained in an area
62254917	R strategist	reproduce early in life; many small unprotected offspring
62254918	K strategist	reproduce late in life; few offspring; care for offspring
62254919	Positive feedback	when a change in some condition triggers a response that intensifies the changing condition (warmer Earth - snow melts - less sunlight is reflected and more is absorbed, therefore warmer earth)
62254920	Negative feedback	when a change in some condition triggers a response that counteracts the changed condition (warmer earth - more ocean evaporation - more stratus clouds - less sunlight reaches the ground - therefore cooler earth)
62254921	Malthus	said human population continue to increase exponentially; consequences will be war, famine, and disease
62263108	Doubling time	rule of 70; 70 divided by the percent growth rate
62263109	Replacement level fertility	the number of children a couple must have to replace themselves (2.1 in developed countries)
62263110	World Population (U.S. Population)	~6.7 billion (~305 million)
62263111	Preindustrial stage	(demographic transition) birth and death rates high, population grows slowly, infant mortality high
62263112	Transitional stage	(demographic transition) death rate lower, better health care, population grows quickly
62263113	Industrial stage	(demographic transition) decline in birth rate, population growth slows
62263114	Post-industrial stage	(demographic transition) low birth and death rates
62263115	Age structure diagrams	broad base = rapid growth; narrow base = negative growth; uniform shape = zero growth
62263116	First, second, and third most populated countries	China, India, U.S.
62263117	Most important thing affecting population growth	low status of women
62263118	Ways to decrease birth rate	family planning, contraception, economic rewards and penalties
62263119	Percent water on earth by type	97.5% seawater, 2.5% freshwater
62263120	Salinization of soil	in arid regions, water evaporates leaving salts behind
62263121	Ways to conserve water	agriculture = drip/trickle irrigation; industry = recycling; home = use gray water, repair leaks, low flow fixtures
62268717	Point vs. non-point sources	Point = from specific location, such as a pipe. Non-point = from over an area, such as runoff
62268718	BOD	Biological Oxygen Demand; amount of dissolved oxygen needed by aerobic decomposers to break down organic materials
62268719	Eutrophication	rapid algal growth caused by an excess of nitrates (NO3)- and phosphates (PO4)3- in the water
62268720	Hypoxia	when aquatic plants die, the BOD reises as aerobic decomposers break down the plants, the dissolved oxygen levels drop and the water cannot support life
62268721	Minamata disease	1932-1968, Japan; mental impairments caused by methylmercury poisoning
62268722	Primary air pollutants	produced by humans and nature (CO, CO2, SOx, NOx, hydrocarbons, particulates)
62268723	Natural selection	organisms that possess favorable adaptations that are passed on to the next generation
62269912	Particulate matter	Source: burning fossil fuels and diesel exhaust; Effect: reduces visibility and respiratory irritation; Reduction: filtering, electrostatic precipitators, alternative energy
62269913	Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)	Source: auto exhaust; Effects: acidification of lakes, respiratory irritation, smog and ozone; Equation for acid formation: NO+O2 = NO2 + H2O = HNO3; Reduction: catalytic converter
62430813	Sulfur oxides (SOx)	Source: coal burning; Effects: acid deposition, respiratory irritation, damages plants; Equation for acid formation: SO2 + O2 = SO3 + H2O = H2SO4; Reduction: scrubbers, burn low sulfur fuel
62430814	Carbon oxides (CO and CO2)	Source: auto exhaust, incomplete combustion; Effects: CO binds to hemoglobin, reducing blood's ability to carry O2; CO2 contributes to global warming; Reduction: catalytic converter, emission testing, oxygenated fuel, mass transit
62459073	Ozone (O3)	Formation: secondary pollutant, NO2 + UV = NO + O* O* + O2 = O3, with volatile organic compounds; Effects: respiratory damage, plant damage; Reduction reduce NO and VOC emissions
62459074	Radon (Rn)	naturally occurring colorless, odorless, radioactive gas, found in some types of soil and rock, can seep into homes and buildings, formed from the decay of uranium (U), causes lung cancer
62459075	Photochemical smog	formed by chemical reactions involving sunlight (NO, VOC, O*)
62459076	Acid deposition	caused by sulfuric and nitric acids (H2SO4, HNO3), resulting in lowered pH of surface waters
62459077	Greenhouse gases	Examples: H2O, CO2, O3, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), methane (CH4); Effect: trap outgoing infrared (heat) energy, causing Earth to warm
62459078	Effects of global warming	rising sea levels (thermal expansion), extreme weather, drought, famine, extinctions
62459079	Causes of ozone depletion	CFCs, methyl chloroform or trichloromethane (CHCl3), carbon tetrachloride (CCl4), halon (haloalkanes), methyl bromide (CH3Br) - all of which attack stratospheric ozone
62459080	Effects of ozone depletion	increased UV, skin cancer, cataracts, decreased plant growth
62459081	Love Canal, NY	(1950s+) chemicals buried in old canal; school and homes built over it; caused birth defects and cancer
62459082	Main component of municipal solid waste (MSW)	paper; most is landfilled
62459083	True cost / External costs	harmful environmental side effects that are not reflected in a product's price
62459084	Sanitary landfill problems and solutions (leachate)	solution = liner with collection system
62459085	Sanitary landfill problems and solutions (methane gas)	solution = collect gas and burn it
62459086	Sanitary landfill problems and solutions (volume of garbage)	solution = compact and reduce
62459087	Incineration advantages	volume of waste reduced by 90%, and waste heat can be used
62459088	Incineration disadvantages	toxic emissions (polyvinyl chloride, dioxins), scrubbers and electrostatic precipitators needed, ash disposal (contains heavy metals)
62459089	Best way to solve waste problem	reduce the amounts of waste at the source
62459090	Keystone species	species whose role in an ecosystem in an ecosystem is more important than others, such as a sea otter, sea stars, grizzly bear, prairie dogs
62459091	Indicator species	species that serve as early warnings that an ecosystem is being damaged; example: trout
62459092	Characteristics of endangered species	small range, large territory, or live on an island
62459093	In natural ecosystems, methods which control 50-90% of pests	predators, diseases, parasites
62459094	Major insecticide groups (and examples)	chlorinated hydrocarbons (DDT); organophosphates (malathion); carbamates (aldicarb)
62459095	Pesticide pros	saves lives from insect-transmitted diseases, increases food supply, increases profits for farmers
62459096	Pesticide cons	genetic resistance, ecosystem imbalance, pesticide treadmill, persistence, bioaccumulation, biological magnification
62459097	Natural pest control	better agricultural practices, genetically resistant plants, natural enemies, biopesticides, sex attractants
62459098	Electricity generation methods	using steam from water boiled by fossil fuels or nuclear reactions; falling water to turn a turbine to power a generator
62459099	Petroleum formation	microscopic aquatic organisms in sediments converted by heat and pressure into a mixture of hydrocarbons
62459100	Pros of petroleum	relatively cheap, easily transported, high-quality energy
62459101	Cons of petroleum	reserves will be depleted soon; pollution during drilling, transport, and refining; burning makes CO2
62459102	Steps in coal formation	peat, lignite, bituminous, anthracite
62459103	Major parts of a nuclear reactor	core, control rods, steam generator, turbine, containment building
62459104	Two most serious nuclear accidents	Chernobyl, Ukraine (1986) and Three Mile Island, PA (1979)
62459105	Alternate energy sources	wind, solar, waves, biomass, geothermal, fuel cells
62459106	LD50 (LD-50)	(the amount of a chemical that kills 50% of the animals in a test population
62459107	Mutagen	causes hereditary changes through mutations
62459108	Teratogen	causes fetus deformities
62459109	Carcinogen	causes cancer
62459110	Endangered species	a group of organisms in danger of becoming extinct if the situation is not improved; population numbers have dropped below the critical number of organisms; North spotted owl, Arctic polar bear, and many others
62459111	Invasive/Alien/Exotic species	non-native species to an area; often thrive and disrupt the ecosystem balance; examples: kudzu vine, purple loosestrife, African honeybee "killer bee", water hyacinth, fire ant, zebra mussel
62459112	The Tragedy of the Commons	(1968) paper by ecologist Garret Hardin) global commons such as atmosphere and oceans are used by all and owned by none
62459113	Volcano and Earthquake occurrence	at plate boundaries (divergent = spreading, mid-ocean ranges; convergent = trenches; transform = sliding, San Andreas fault)
62459114	Sources of mercury	burning coal, compact fluorescent bulbs
62459115	Major source of sulfur	burning coal
62459116	Threshold dose	the maximum dose that has no measurable effect
62459117	Temperature inversion	layer of dense, cool air trapped under a layer of warm dense air, pollution in trapped layer may build to harmful levels; frequent in Los Angeles, CA and Mexico City, Mexico
62459118	Transpiration	process where water is absorbed by plant roots, moves up through plants, passes through pores (stomata) in leaves or other parts, evaporates into atmosphere as water vapor
62459119	Monoculture	cultivation of a single crop, usually in a large area
62459120	Food	wheat, rice, and corn provide more than 1/2 of the calories in the food consumed by the world's people
62459121	Surface Forest Fire	usually burn only under growth and leaf litter on forest floor
62459122	Crown Forest Fire	hot fires, may start on ground but eventually leap from treetop to treetop
62459123	Ground Forest Fire	go underground, may smolder for days or weeks, difficult to detect and extinguish (peat bogs)
62459124	Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act	1977; requires coal strip mines to reclaim the land
62459125	Madrid Protocol	1991; Suspension of mineral exploration (mining) for 50 years in Antarctica
62459126	Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA)	1974; set maximum contaminant levels for pollutants in drinking water tha may have adverse effects on human health
62459127	Clean Water Act (CWA)	1972; set maximum permissible amounts of water pollutants that can be discharged into waterways; aims to make surface waters swimmable and fishable
62459128	Ocean Dumping Ban Act	1988; bans ocean dumping of sewage sludge and industrial waste in the ocean
62459129	Clean Air Act (CAA)	1970; set emission standards for cars and limits release of air pollutants
62459130	Kyoto Protocol	2005; controlling global warming by setting greenhouse gas emissions targets for developed countries
62459131	Montreal Protocol	1987; phase-out of ozone depleting substances
62459132	Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)	1976; controls hazardous waste with a cradle to grave system
62459133	Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA)	1980; "superfund," designed to identify and clean up abandoned hazardous waste dump sites
62459134	Nuclear Waste Policy Act	1982; U.S. government must develop a high level nuclear waste site (Yucca Mountain)
62459852	Endangered Species Act	1973; identifies threatened and endangered species in the U.S. and puts their protection ahead of economic considerations
62459853	Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)	1973; lists species that cannot be commercially traded as live specimens or wildlife products
62459854	Magnuson-Stevens Act	1976; management of marine fisheries
62459855	Food Quality Protection Act	1996; set pesticide limits in food, and all active and inactive ingredients must be screened for estrogenic/endocrine effects
62459856	National Environmental Policy Act	1969; Environmental Impact Statements must be done before any project affecting federal lands can be started
62459857	Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants	2004; Seeks to protect human health from the 12 most toxic chemicals (includes 8 chlorinated hydrocarbons pesticides / DDT can be used for malaria control)

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Chpt 48 - Nervous System Flashcards

Chapter 48, Campbell & Reece, 7th Ed.

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407182672	acetylcholine	One of the most common neurotransmitters; functions by binding to receptors and altering the permeability of the postsynaptic membrane to specific ions, either depolarizing or hyperpolarizing the membrane.
407182673	action potential	A rapid change in the membrane potential of an excitable cell, caused by stimulus-triggered, selective opening and closing of voltage-sensitive gates in sodium and potassium ion channels.
407182674	Alzheimer's disease	An age-related dementia (mental deterioration) characterized by confusion, memory loss, and other symptoms.
407182675	aspartate	An amino acid that functions as a CNS neurotransmitter.
407182676	astrocyte	A glial cell that provides structural and metabolic support for neurons.
407182677	autonomic nervous system	A subdivision of the motor nervous system of vertebrates that regulates the internal environment; consists of the sympathetic, parasympathetic, and enteric divisions.
407182678	axon	A typically long extension, or process, from a neuron that carries nerve impulses away from the cell body toward target cells.
407182679	axon hillock	The conical region of a neuron's axon where it joins the cell body; typically the region where nerve signals are generated.
407182680	basal nuclei	A cluster of nuclei deep within the white matter of the cerebrum.
407182681	biogenic amine	A neurotransmitter derived from an amino acid.
407182682	biological clock	An internal timekeeper that controls an organism's biological rhythms. The biological clock marks time with or without environmental cues but often requires signals from the environment to remain tuned to an appropriate period. See also circadian rhythm.
407182683	bipolar disorder	Depressive mental illness characterized by swings of mood from high to low; also called manic-depressive disorder.
407182684	blood-brain barrier	A specialized capillary arrangement in the brain that restricts the passage of most substances into the brain, thereby preventing dramatic fluctuations in the brain's environment.
407182685	brainstem	Collection of structures in the adult brain, including the midbrain, the pons, and the medulla oblongata; functions in homeostasis, coordination of movement, and conduction of information to higher brain centers.
407182686	cell body	The part of a cell, such as a neuron, that houses the molecules.
407182687	central canal	The narrow cavity in the center of the spinal cord that is continuous with the fluid-filled ventricles of the brain.
407182688	central nervous system (CNS)	In vertebrate animals, the brain and spinal cord.
407182689	cerebellum	Part of the vertebrate hindbrain located dorsally; functions in unconscious coordination of movement and balance.
407182690	cerebral cortex	The surface of the cerebrum; the largest and most complex part of the mammalian brain, containing sensory and motor nerve cell bodies of the cerebrum; the part of the vertebrate brain most changed through evolution.
407182691	cerebral hemisphere	The right or left side of the vertebrate brain.
407182692	cerebrospinal fluid	Blood-derived fluid that surrounds, protects against infection, nourishes, and cushions the brain and spinal cord.
407182693	cerebrum	The dorsal portion of the vertebrate forebrain, composed of right and left hemispheres; the integrating center for memory, learning, emotions, and other highly complex functions of the central nervous system.
407182694	corpus callosum	The thick band of nerve fibers that connect the right and left cerebral hemispheres in placental mammals, enabling the hemispheres to process information together.
407182695	cranial nerve	A nerve that leaves the brain and innervates an organ of the head or upper body.
407182696	dendrite	One of usually numerous, short, highly branched processes of a neuron that convey nerve impulses toward the cell body.
407182697	depolarization	An electrical state in an excitable cell whereby the inside of the cell is made less negative relative to the outside than at the resting membrane potential. A neuron membrane is depolarized if a stimulus decreases its voltage from the resting potential of -70 mV in the direction of zero voltage.
407182698	dopamine	A biogenic amine closely related to epinephrine and norepinephrine.
407182699	effector cell	A muscle cell or gland cell that performs the body's responses to stimuli; responds to signals from the brain or other processing center of the nervous system.
407182700	endorphin	Any of several hormones produced in the brain and anterior pituitary that inhibits pain perception.
407182701	enteric division	Complex networks of neurons in the digestive tract, pancreas, and gallbladder; normally regulated by the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system.
407182702	epinephrine	A catecholamine hormone secreted from the adrenal medulla that mediates fight-or-flightresponses to short-term stress; also functions as a neurotransmitter.
407182703	epithalamus	A brain region, derived from the diencephalon, that contains several clusters of capillaries that produce cerebrospinal fluid.
407182704	equilibrium potential (Eion)	The magnitude of a cell's membrane voltage at equilibrium; calculated using the Nernst equation.
407182705	excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)	An electrical change (depolarization) in the membrane of a postsynaptic neuron caused by the binding of an excitatory neurotransmitter from a presynaptic cell to a postsynaptic receptor; makes it more likely for a postsynaptic neuron to generate an action potential.
407182706	forebrain	One of three ancestral and embryonic regions of the vertebrate brain; develops into the thalamus, hypothalamus, and cerebrum.
407182707	gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA)	An amino acid that functions as a CNS neurotransmitter.
407182708	ganglion	A cluster (functional group) of nerve cell bodies in a centralized nervous system.
407182709	gated ion channel	A gated channel for a specific ion. By opening and closing such channels, a cell alters its membrane potential.
407182710	glia	Supporting cells that are essential for the structural integrity of the nervous system and for the normal functioning of neurons.
407182711	glutamate	An amino acid that functions as a CNS neurotransmitter.
407182712	glycine	An amino acid that functions as a CNS neurotransmitter.
407182713	graded potential	A local voltage change in a neuron membrane induced by stimulation of a neuron, with strength proportional to the strength of the stimulus and lasting about a millisecond.
407182714	gray matter	Regions of dendrites and clusters of neuron cell bodies within the CNS.
407182715	growth cone	Responsive region at the leading edge of a growing axon.
407182716	hindbrain	One of three ancestral and embryonic regions of the vertebrate brain; develops into the medulla oblongata, pons, and cerebellum.
407182717	hyperpolarization	An electrical state whereby the inside of the cell is made more negative relative to the outside than at the resting membrane potential. A neuron membrane is hyperpolarized if a stimulus increases its voltage from the resting potential of -70 mV, reducing the chance that the neuron will transmit a nerve impulse.
407182718	hypothalamus	The ventral part of the vertebrate forebrain; functions in maintaining homeostasis, especially in coordinating the endocrine and nervous systems; secretes hormones of the posterior pituitary and releasing factors that regulate the anterior pituitary.
407182719	inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)	An electrical charge (hyperpolarization) in the membrane of a postsynaptic neuron caused by the binding of an inhibitory neurotransmitter from a presynaptic cell to a postsynaptic receptor; makes it more difficult for a postsynaptic neuron to generate an action potential.
407182720	interneuron	An association neuron; a nerve cell within the central nervous system that forms synapses with sensory and motor neurons and integrates sensory input and motor output.
407182721	lateralization	Segregation of functions in the cortex of the left and right hemispheres of the brain.
407182722	ligand-gated ion channel	A protein pore in the plasma membrane that opens or closes in response to a chemical signal, allowing or blocking the flow of specific ions.
407182723	limbic system	A group of nuclei (clusters of nerve cell bodies) in the lower part of the mammalian forebrain that interact with the cerebral cortex in determining emotions; includes the hippocampus and the amygdala.
407182724	long-term memory	The ability to hold, associate, and recall information over one's life.
407182725	long-term potentiation (LTP)	An enhanced responsiveness to an action potential (nerve signal) by a receiving neuron.
407182726	major depression	Depressive mental illness characterized by experiencing a low mood most of the time.
407182727	medulla oblongata	The lowest part of the vertebrate brain, commonly called the medulla; a swelling of the hindbrain dorsal to the anterior spinal cord that controls autonomic, homeostatic functions, including breathing, heart and blood vessel activity, swallowing, digestion, and vomiting.
407182728	membrane potential	The charge difference between a cell's cytoplasm and the extracellular fluid, due to the differential distribution of ions. Membrane potential affects the activity of excitable cells and the transmembrane movement of all charged substances.
407182729	midbrain	One of three ancestral and embryonic regions of the vertebrate brain; develops into sensory integrating and relay centers that send sensory information to the cerebrum.
407182730	motor neuron	A nerve cell that transmits signals from the brain or spinal cord to muscles or glands.
407182731	myelin sheath	In a neuron, an insulating coat of cell membrane from Schwann cells that is interrupted by nodes of Ranvier, where saltatory conduction occurs.
407182732	neocortex	In the mammalian brain, the outermost region of the cerebral cortex.
407182733	nerve	A ropelike bundle of neuron fibers (axons and dendrites) tightly wrapped in connective tissue.
407182734	nerve cord	A ropelike arrangement of neurons characteristic of animals with bilateral symmetry and cephalization.
407182735	nerve net	A weblike system of neurons, characteristic of radially symmetrical animals, such as Hydra.
407182736	neuron	A nerve cell; the fundamental unit of the nervous system, having structure and properties that allow it to conduct signals by taking advantage of the electrical charge across its cell membrane.
407182737	neuropeptide	A relatively short chain of amino acids that serves as a neurotransmitter.
407182738	neurotransmitter	A chemical messenger released from the synaptic terminal of a neuron at a chemical synapse that diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to and stimulates the postsynaptic cell.
407182739	norepinephrine	A hormone that is chemically and functionally similar to epinephrine.
407182740	oligodendrocyte	A type of glial cell that forms insulating myelin sheaths around the axons of neurons in the central nervous system.
407182741	parasympathetic division	One of three divisions of the autonomic nervous system; generally enhances body activities that gain and conserve energy, such as digestion and reduced heart rate.
407182742	Parkinson's disease	A motor disorder caused by a progressive brain disease and characterized by difficulty in initiating movements, slowness of movement, and rigidity.
407182743	peripheral nervous system (PNS)	The sensory and motor neurons that connect to the central nervous system.
407182744	pons	Portion of the brain that participates in certain automatic, homeostatic functions, such as regulating the breathing centers in the medulla.
407182745	postsynaptic cell	The target cell at a synapse.
407182746	presynaptic cell	The transmitting cell at a synapse.
407182747	radial glia	In an embryo, supporting cells that form tracks along which newly formed neurons migrate from the neural tube; can also act as stem cells that give rise to neurons and other glia.
407182748	reflex	An automatic reaction to a stimulus, mediated by the spinal cord or lower brain.
407182749	refractory period	The short time immediately after an action potential in which the neuron cannot respond to another stimulus, owing to an increase in potassium permeability.
407182750	resting potential	The membrane potential characteristic of a nonconducting, excitable cell, with the inside of the cell more negative than the outside.
407182751	reticular formation	A system of neurons, containing over 90 separate nuclei, that passes through the core of the brainstem.
407182752	saltatory conduction	Rapid transmission of a nerve impulse along an axon, resulting from the action potential jumping from one node of Ranvier to another, skipping the myelin-sheathed regions of membrane.
407182753	schizophrenia	Severe mental disturbance characterized by psychotic episodes in which patients lose the ability to distinguish reality from hallucination.
407182754	Schwann cell	A type of glial cells that forms insulating myelin sheaths around the axons of neurons in the peripheral nervous system.
407182755	sensory neuron	A nerve cell that receives information from the internal and external environments and transmits the signals to the central nervous system.
407182756	serotonin	A biogenic amine synthesized from the amino acid tryptophan.
407182757	short-term memory	The ability to hold information, anticipations, or goals for a time and then release them if they become irrelevant.
407182758	somatic nervous system	The branch of the motor division of the vertebrate peripheral nervous system composed of motor neurons that carry signals to skeletal muscles in response to external stimuli.
407182759	spatial summation	A phenomenon of neural integration in which the membrane potential of the postsynaptic cell is determined by the combined effect of EPSPs or IPSPs produced nearly simultaneously by different synapses.
407182760	spinal nerve	In the vertebrate peripheral nervous system, a nerve that carries signals to or from the spinal cord.
407182761	stretch-gated ion channel	Protein pore in a cell's plasma membrane that opens when the membrane is mechanically deformed, allowing the passage of certain ions.
407182762	substance P	A neuropeptide that is a key excitatory signal that mediates our perception of pain.
407182763	suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN)	A pair of structures in the hypothalamus of mammals that functions as a biological clock.
407182764	sympathetic division	One of three divisions of the autonomic nervous system of vertebrates; generally increases energy expenditure and prepares the body for action.
407182765	synapse	The locus where one neuron communicates with another neuron in a neural pathway; a narrow gap between a synaptic terminal of an axon and a signal-receiving portion (dendrite or cell body) of another neuron or effector cell. Neurotransmitter molecules released by synaptic terminals diffuse across the synapse, relaying messages to the dendrite or effector.
407182766	synaptic cleft	A narrow gap separating the synaptic knob of a transmitting neuron from a receiving neuron or an effector cell.
407182767	synaptic terminal	A bulb at the end of an axon in which neurotransmitter molecules are stored and released.
407182768	synaptic vesicle	Membranous sac containing neurotransmitter molecules at the tip of the presynaptic axon.
407182769	temporal summation	A phenomenon of neural integration in which the membrane potential of the postsynaptic cell in a chemical synapse is determined by the combined effect of EPSPs or IPSPs produced in rapid succession.
407182770	thalamus	One of two integrating centers of the vertebrate forebrain. Neurons with cell bodies in the thalamus relay neural input to specific areas in the cerebral cortex and regulate what information goes to the cerebral cortex.
407182771	threatened species	A species that is considered likely to become endangered in the foreseeable future.
407182772	threshold	The potential an excitable cell membrane must reach for an action potential to be initiated.
407182773	ventricle	(1) A heart chamber that pumps blood out of a heart. (2) A space in the vertebrate brain, filled with cerebrospinal fluid.
407182774	voltage-gated ion channel	A specialized ion channel that opens or closes in response to changes in membrane potential.
407182775	white matter	Tracts of axons within the CNS.

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Chemistry: Atoms and Subatomic Particles Flashcards

Unit: Structure of Matter
Concept: Atoms and Subatomic Particles

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580994550	Atom	The smallest part of an element that can exist alone
580994551	Proton	The positive part of an atom
580994552	Electron	The negative part of an atom
580994553	Neutron	The neutral part of an atom
580994554	Nucleus	The center of an atom; protons and neutrons are found here
580994555	Atomic Number	The number of protons in an atom
580994556	Isotopes	Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons
580994557	Mass Number	The number of protons + neutrons in an atom
580994558	Matter	Anything that has mass and volume
580994559	Element	Matter made of only one type of atom
580994560	Compound	Two or more elements chemically combined
580994561	Mixture	Two or more elements and/or compounds physically combined
580994562	Electron cloud	The area around the nucleus of an atom where the atom's electrons are most likely to be found
580994563	Energy level	orbital where electrons are found according to the Bohr's planetary model of the atom.
580994564	Group	a vertical column of elements in the periodic table; elements in a group share chemical properties
580994565	Metalloid	an element that has some properties characteristic of metals and some of nonmetals
580994566	Metal	a class of elements characterized by physical properties that include shininess, malleability, ductility, and conductivity
580994567	Metalloid	found along stair-step line on the periodic table
580994568	Metal	found to the left of the stair-step line on the periodic table
580994569	Nonmetal	element that usually is a gas or brittle solid at room temperature, is not malleable or ductile, is a poor conductor of heat and electricity, and typically is not shiny
580994570	Nonmetal	found to the right of the stair-step line on the periodic table
580994571	Period	a horizontal row of elements in the periodic table
580994572	Periodic Table	an arrangement of the elements in order of their atomic numbers so that elements with similar properties fall in the same column, or group
580994573	Subatomic Particle	an electron, proton, or neutron; one of the three major particles of which atoms are composed
580994574	Valence Electron	an electron that is found in the outermost shell of an atom
580994575	Valence Electron	determines an atom's chemical properties

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Part 1: The Nature of Crime, Law, & Criminal Justice Flashcards

Part 1
Chapter 1
1. Myth vs Reality
2. Developing the Criminal Justice System
A. The Modern Era of Justice
B. Federal Involvement in the Criminal Justice
3. The Contemporary Criminal Justice
4. The Formal Criminal Justice Process
A. The Criminal Justice Assembly Line
5. The Informal Criminal Justice Process
A. The "Wedding Cake" Model of Justice
6. Perspectives on Justice
A. Crime Control Perspective
B. Rehabilitation Perspective
C. Due Process Perspective
D. Nonintervention Perspective
E. Equal Justice Perspective
F. Restorative Justice Perspective
G. Perspectives in Perspective
7. Contemporary Issues in Criminal Justice-
Evidence-Based Justice: Does Monitoring *** Offenders Really Work?
8. Ethics in Criminal Justice
A. Ethics and Law Enforcement
B. Ethics and the Courts
C. Ethics and Corrections
9. Criminal Justice and Technology-
Using Biometrics to Fight Terrorism: US-VISIT

Chapter 2
1. How Is Crime Defined?
A. Consensus View?
B. Conflict View
C. Interactionist View
2. How Is Crime Measured?
A. Official Crime Data: The Uniform Crime Reports (UCR)
B. The National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS)
C. Self-Report Surveys
D.Compatibility of Crime Data Sources
3. Crime Trends
A. Trends in Self-Reporting
4. What the Future Holds
5. Crime Patterns
A. Ecological Patterns
B. Gender Patterns
C. Racial Patterns
6. Contemporary Issues in Criminal Justice: Is The United States Crime Prone?

Chapter 3
1. Similarities and differences between criminal law and civil law
2. Historical Development of the Criminal Law
A. Common Law and the Principle of Stare Decisis
3. Sources of the Criminal Law
A. Constitutional Limits
B. Crimes and Classifications
4. The Legal Definition of a Crime
A. Actus Reus
B. Mens Rea
C. The Relationship betwen Mens Rea and Actus Reus
D. Strict Liability
5. Criminal Defenses
A. Excuse Defenses
B. Justification Defenses
6. Reforming the Criminal Law
A. Creating New Crimes
7. Constitutional Criminal Procedure
8.

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482648634	Consensus View of Crime	The majority of citizen's in society share common ideals and work toward a common good. Crimes are acts that are outlawed because they conflict with the rules of the majority and are harmful to society.
482648635	Conflict View of Crime	The law is controlled by the rich and powerful who shape its content to ensure their continued economic domination of society. The crimina justice system is an instrument of social and economic repression.
482648636	Interactionist View of Crime	Criminal law reflects the values of people who use their social and political power to shape the legal system.
482648637	Moral Entrepreneurs	People who wage moral crusades to control criminal law so that it reflects their own personal values.
482648638	Crime	A violation of societal rules of behavior as interpreted and expressed by a criminal legal code created by people holding social and political power. Individuals who violate these rules are subject to sanctions by state authority, social stigma, and loss of status.
482648639	Uniform Crime Reports (UCR)	The FBI's yearly publication of where, when, and how much serious crime occurred in the prior years.
482648640	Official Crime Statistics	Compiled by the FBI in its Uniform Crime Reports, these are a tally of serious crimes reported to police agencies each year.
482648641	Part I Crimes	The eight crimes for which, because of their seriousness and frequency, the FBI reports their incidence in its annual Uniform Crime Reports. The Part I crimes are murder, rape, assault, robbery, burglary, arson, larceny, and motor vehicle theft.
482648642	Part II Crimes	All other crimes except the eight Part I crimes. The FBI records all arrest made for Part II crimes, including race, gender, and age information.
482648643	National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS)	The ongoing victimization study conducted jointly by the Justice Department and the U.S. Census Bureau that surveys victims about their experiences with law violation.
482648644	Self-Report Survey	A research approach that requires subjects to reveal their own participation in delinquent or criminal acts.
482648645	Racial Threat Hypothesis	The view the percentage of minorities in the population shapes the level of police activity.
482648646	Relative Deprivation	The view that extreme social and economic differences among people living in the same community exacerbate criminal activity.
482648647	Broken Windows Hypothesis	The view that deteriorated communities attract criminal activity.
482648648	Chronic Offender	A delinquent offender who is arrested five or more times before he or she is 18 and who stands a good chance of becoming an adult criminal; these offenders are responsible for more than half of all serious crimes.
482648649	Rational Choice Theory	People will engage in delinquent and criminal behavior after weighing the consequences and benefits of their actions. Delinquent behavior is a rational choice made by a motivated offender who perceives the chances of gain as outweighing any perceived punishment or loss.
482648650	Biosocial Theory	Human behavior is a function of the interaction of biochemical, neurological, and genetic factors with environmental stimuli.
482648651	Psychodynamic View	Criminals are driven by unconscious thought patterns, developed in early childhood, that control behaviors over the life course.
482648652	Bipolar Disorder	A psychological condition marked by mood swings between periods of wild elation and deep depression.
482648653	Social Learning Theory	Behavior patterns are modeled and learned in interactions with others.
482648654	Antisocial (Sociopathic, psychopathic) Personality	Individuals who are always in trouble and do not learn from either experience or punishment. They are loners who engage in frequent callous and hedonistic behaviors are emotionally immature, and empathy.
482648655	Social Structure Theory	A person's position in the social structure controls his or her behavior. Those in the lowest socioeconomic tier are more likely to succumb to crime-promoting elements in their environment, whereas those in the highest tier enjoy social and economic advantages that insulate them from crime-producing forces.
482648656	Culture of Poverty	The crushing lifestyle of slum areas produces a culture of poverty, passed from one generation to the next, marked by apathy, cynicism, feelings of helplessness, and mistrust of social institutions, such as schools, government agencies, and the police.
482648657	Subculture	A substratum of society that maintains a unique set of values and beliefs.
482648658	Cultural Transmission	The passing of cultural values from one generation to the next.
482648659	Social Process Theory	An individual's behavior is shaped by interactions with key social institutions--family, school, peer group, and the like.
482648660	Social Conflict Theory	Human behavior is shaped by interpersonal conflict, and those who maintain social power use it to further their own interest.
482648661	Developmental Theory	Social interactions that are developed over the life course shape behavior. Some interactions (such as involvement with deviant peers) encourage laws violations, whereas other (such as marriage and military service) may help people desist from crime.
482648662	Substantive Criminal Law	A body of specific rules that declare what conduct is criminal and prescribe the punishment to be imposed for such conduct
482648663	Criminal Procedure	The rules and laws that define the operation of criminal proceedings. Procedure law describes the methods that must be followed in obtaining: warrants, investigating offenses, effecting lawful arrests, conducting trials, introducing evidence, sentencing convicted offenders, and reviewing cases by appellate courts.
482648664	Civil law	All law that is not criminal, including the law of torts (personal wrongs) and contract, property, maritime, and commercial law.
482648665	Tort	A personal injury or wrong for which an action for damages may be brought.
482648666	Public Law	The branch of law that deals with the state of government and its relationships with individuals or other governments.
482648667	Lex Talionis	Latin for "law as retaliation." From Hammurabi's ancient legal code, the belief that the purpose of the law is to provide retaliation for an offended party and that the punishment should fit the crime.
482648668	Stare Decisis	Latin for "to stand by decided cases." The legal principle by which the decision or holding in an earlier case becomes the standard by which the subsequent similar cases are judged.
482648669	Common Law	Early english law, developed by judges, that incorporated Anglo-Saxon tribal custom, feudal rules, and practices, and the everyday rules of behavior of local villages. Common law became the standardized law of the land in England and eventually formed the basis for the criminal law in the United States.
482648670	Mala in Se	A term that refers to the acts that society considers inherently evil, such as murder and rape, and that violate the basic principles of Judeo-Christian morality.
482648671	Mala Prohibitum	Crimes created by legislative bodies that reflect prevailing moral beliefs and practices.
482648672	Felony	A more serious offense that carries a penalty of incarceration in a state prison, usually one year or more. Persons convicted of felony offenses lose such rights as the right to vote, hold elective office, or maintain certain licenses.
482648673	Misdemeanor	A minor crime usually punished by less than one year's imprisonment in a local institution, such as county jail.
482648674	Actus Reus	An Illegal act. The actus reus can be an affirmative act, such as taking money or shooting someone, or a failure to act, such as failing to take proper precautions while driving a car.
482648675	Mens Rea	Guilty mind. The mental element of a crime or the intent to commit a criminal act.
482648676	Strict Liability Crime	Illegal act whose elements do not contain the need for intent, or means rea; usually, an act that endangers the public welfare, such as illegal dumping of toxic wastes.
482648677	Insanity	A legal defense that maintains a defendant was incapable of forming criminal intent because he or she suffers from a defect of some reason or mental illness.
482648678	Self-Defense	A legal defense in which defendants claim that their behavior was legally justified by the necessity to protect their own life and property, or that another victim, from potential harm.
482648679	Entrapment	A criminal defense that maintains the police originated the criminal idea or initiated the criminal action.
482648680	Obitiatry	Helping people take their own lives.
482648681	Stalking	The willful, malicious, and repeated following and harassing of another person.
482648682	USA Patriot Act (USAPA)	A law designed to grant new powers to domestic law enforcement and international intelligence agencies in an effort to fight terrorism.
482648683	Bill Of Rights	The first 10 amendments to the U.S. Constitution.
482648684	Exclusionary Rule	Evidence seized in violation of the Fourth Amendment cannot be used in a court of law.
482648685	Criminal Justice System	The law enforcement, court, and correctional agencies that work together to effect the apprehension, prosecution, and control of criminal offenders. The justice system is responsible for maintaining order, enforcing the law, identifying transgressors, bringing the guilty to justice, and treating the criminal behavior.
482648686	Criminal Justice Process	The decision-making points, from the initial investigation or arrest by police to the eventual release of the offender and his or her reentry into society; the various sequential criminal justice stages through which the offender passes.
482648687	Law Enforcement Assistance Administration (LEAA)	Funded by the federal government's Safe Street Act, this agency provided technical assistance and hundreds of millions of dollars in aid to local and state justice agencies between 1969 and 1982.
482648688	Social Control	The control of an individual's behavior by social and institutional forces in society.
482648689	In-Presence Requirement	The condition that in order to make an arrest in a misdemeanor, the arresting officer must have personally witnessed the crime being committed.
482648690	Nolle Prosequi	The term used when a prosecutor decides to drop a case after a complaint has been formally made. Reasons for this include evidence insufficiency, reluctance of witnesses to testify, police error, and office policy.
482648691	Grand Jury	A type of jury responsible for investigating alleged crimes, examining evidence, and issuing indictments.
482648692	True Bill of Indictment	A written statement charging a defendant with the commission of a crime, drawn up by a prosecuting attorney and considered by a grand jury. If the grand jury finds sufficient evidence to support to indictment, it will issue this.
482648693	Information	Charging document filed by the prosecution that forms the basis of the preliminary hearing.
482648694	Probable Cause Hearing	Term used in some jurisdictions for a preliminary hearing to show cause to bring a case to trial.
482648695	The Formal Criminal Justice Process	1. Initial Contact 2. Investigation 3. Arrest 4. Custody 5. Charging 6. Preliminary Hearing/ Grand Jury 7. Arraignment 8. Bail/ Detention 9. Plea Bargaining 10. Trail/ Adjudication 11. Sentencing/ Disposition 12. Appeal/ Postconviction Remedies 13. Correctional Treatment 14. Release 15. Post Release
482648696	The System: Agencies of Crime Control 1. Police	The Process: 1. Initial Contact 2. Investigation 3. Arrest 4. Custody
482648697	The System: Agencies of Crime Control 2. Prosecution and Defense	The Process: 5. Complaint/ Charging 6. Preliminary Hearing/ Grand Jury 7. Arraignment 8. Bail/ Detention 9. Plea Bargaining/ Plea Negotiations
482648698	The System: Agencies of Crime Control 3. Court	The Process: 10. Trail/ Adjudication 11. Sentencing/ Disposition 12. Appeal/ Postconviction Remedies
482648699	The System: Agencies of Crime Control 4. Corrections	The Process: 13. Correctional Treatment 14. Release 15. Post Release
482648700	Courtroom Work Group	The phrase used to indicate that all parties in the adversary process work together and cooperatively to settle cases with the least amount of effort and conflict.
482648701	The Criminal Justice "Wedding Cake"	1. Celebrated Cases 2. Serious Felonies 3. Less Serious Felonies 4. Misdemeanors
482648702	Crime Control Perspective	A model of criminal justice that emphasizes the control of dangerous offenders and the protection of society. Its advocates call for harsh punishments as deterrent to crime and support availability of the death penalty.
482648703	Rehabilitation Perspective	The view that the primary purpose of criminal justice is helping to care for people who cannot manage themselves. Crime is an expression of frustration and anger created by social inequality and can be controlled by giving people the means to improve their lifestyle through conventional endeavors.
482648704	Due Process Perspective	A basic constitutional principle based on the concept of an individual's expectations of civil rights and justice and the complementary concept of limitation on governmental power; it is safeguard against arbitrary and unfair state procedures in judicial or administrative proceedings. Embodied in the due process concept are the basic right of a defendant in criminal proceedings and the requirements for a fair trail.
482648705	Nonintervention Perspective	A view of criminal justice that emphasizes the least intrusive treatment possible. Among its central policies are decarceration, diversion, and decriminalization. In other words, less is better.
482648706	Decriminalization	Reducing the penalty for a criminal act, but not actually legalizing it.
482648707	Legalization	The removal of all criminal penalties from a previously outlawed act.
482648708	Deinstitutionalization	The policy of removing as many offenders as possible from secure confinement and treating them in the community.
482648709	Pretrail Diversion	A program that provides nonpunitive, community-based alternatives to more intrusive forms of punishment such as jail or prison.
482648710	Widening the Net of Justice	The view that programs designed to divert offenders from the justice system actually enmesh them further in the process by substituting more intrusive treatment programs for less intrusive punishment-oriented outcomes.
482648711	Equal Justice Perspective	The view that all people should be treated equally before the law. Equality may be best achieved through individual discretion in the justice process.
482648712	Truth-in-Sentencing Laws	A sentencing scheme requiring that offenders serve at least 85% of their original sentence before being eligible for parole or other forms of early release.
482648713	Restorative Justice Perspective	A view of criminal justice that advocates peaceful solutions and mediation rather than coercive punishments.

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AP Psychology Flashcards

Units covering History and Approaches, Psychology Science, Neural Process and Endocrine system, brain, genetics, behavior, evolutionary psychology, sensation and perception, states of consciousness, learning, and memory.

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607532939	Behaviorism	an approach to psychology that emphasizes observable measurable behavior
607532940	Humanistic Psychology	historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual's potential for personal growth.
607532941	Cognitive Neuroscience	The interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)
607532942	Biopsychosocial approach	an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis.
607532943	Biological Psychology	a branch of psychology that studies the links between biological (including neuroscience and behavior genetics) and psychological processes
607532944	Evolutionary Psychology	the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection.
607532945	Psychodynamic Psychology	a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders.
607532946	Behavioral Psychology	The scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning; as a theoretical orientation, behaviorism is based on the premise that scientific psychology should study only observable behavior.
607532947	Cognitive Psychology	the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.
607532948	Social-cultural psychology	the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking
607532949	Developmental Psychology	a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span.
607532950	Educational Psychology	The study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning.
607532951	Personality Psychology	The study of an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.
607532952	Social Psychology	the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking
607532953	Human Factors Psychology	a branch of psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use.
607532954	Hindsight Bias	the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon)
607532955	Hypothesis	a proposal intended to explain certain facts or observations
607532956	Operational Definition	Identifies one or more specific, observable events or conditions such that any other researcher can independently measure and/or test for them.
607532957	Correlation	a statistical relation between two or more variables such that systematic changes in the value of one variable are accompanied by systematic changes in the other
607532958	Illusionary Correlation	The perception of a relationship where none exists--we are likely to notice or recall instances to confirm our belief.
607532959	Random Assignment	assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups.
607532960	Double-Blind Procedure	an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.
607532961	Placebo effect	experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which is assumed to be an active agent
607532962	Experimental group	in an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.
607532963	Control Group	In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.
607532964	Independent variable	The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.
607532965	Dependent variable	the variable that is measured in an experiment
607532966	Confounding variable	A factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment.
607532967	Normal curve	the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes.
607532968	Statistical Significance	A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.
607532969	Neuron	a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system
607532970	Sensory Neuron	nerve cell that carries information from the environment to the central nervous system
607532971	Motor Neuron	A neuron that sends an impulse to a muscle or gland, causing the muscle or gland to react.
607532972	Action Potential	a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. The action potential is generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon's membrane.
607532973	Threshold	the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.
607532974	Synapse	the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or cleft.
607532975	Neurotransmitter	a chemical that is released by a neuron for the purpose of carrying information across the gaps (synapses) between neurons
607532976	Central Nervous System	the portion of the vertebrate nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord
607532977	Peripheral nervous system	the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body
607532978	Somatic nervous system	the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system
607532979	Autonomic nervous system	The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart).
607532980	Parasympathetic nervous system	the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy.
607532981	Sympathetic nervous system	the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations.
607532982	Endocrine System	the system of glands that produce endocrine secretions that help to control bodily metabolic activity.
607532983	Pituitary Gland	the endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.
607532984	Broca's Area	controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech
607532985	Parietal lobe	portion behind to the frontal lobe, responsible for sensations such as pain, temperature, and touch.
607532986	Occipital lobe	portion posterior to the parietal and temporal lobes, responsible for vision.
607532987	Cerebral cortex	the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.
607532988	Amygdala	limbic system component associated with emotion, particularly fear and anger
607532989	Cerebellum	the "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; its functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance
607532990	Corpus Callosum	the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.
607532991	Left Hemisphere	This half of the brain generally specializes in analysis, calculation, problem solving, verbal communication, interpretation, language, reading & writing. It receives info and controls opposite of the body. Controls the right side of the body.
607532992	Right hemisphere	The right side is more visual and processes intuitively, holistically, and randomly. Controls the left side of the body.
607532993	Temporal lobe	The portion of the cerebral cortex that is just above the ears and that is involved in hearing, language processing, and memory.
607532994	Hippocampus	a neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage
607532995	Motor cortex	an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.
607532996	Plasticity	the brain's capacity for modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage (especially in children) and in experiments on the effects of experience on brain development.
607532997	CT	a method of examining body organs by scanning them with X rays and using a computer to construct a series of cross-sectional scans along a single axis
607532998	MRI	a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain
607532999	PET	using a computerized radiographic technique to examine the metabolic activity in various tissues (especially in the brain)
607533000	Brain Stem	the part of the brain continuous with the spinal cord and comprising the medulla oblongata and pons and midbrain and parts of the hypothalamus
607533001	Hypothalamus	a neural structure lying below the thalamus; directs eating, drinking, body temperature; helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion.
607533002	Behavioral genetice	The study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior., The study of whether and how traits for behavior are inherited.
607533003	Nature vs Nurture	the long-standing controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors.
607533004	Chromosomes	threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes.
607533005	DNA	deoxyribonucleic acid, the material that contains the information that determines inherited characteristics
607533006	Genes	the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; a segment of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein
607533007	Genome	the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes
607533008	Identical Twins	twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms
607533009	Fraternal Twins	twins who develop from separate eggs. they are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment
607533010	Molecular genetics	the branch of genetics concerned with the structure and activity of genetic material at the molecular level
607533011	Evolutionary psychology	the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection
607533012	Natural Selection	process by which individuals that are better suited to their environment survive and reproduce most successfully; also called survival of the fittest
607533013	Mutation	change in a DNA sequence that affects genetic information
607533014	Sensation	the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment
607533015	Perception	the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events
607533016	Absolute Threshold	the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time
607533017	Difference Threshold	the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time. We experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference. (Also called just noticeable difference or jnd.)
607533018	Weber's Law	the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)
607533019	Parallel Processing	The processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.
607533020	Young-Helmholtz trichomatic theory	theory that the retina contains 3 different color receptors-one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue; which when stimulated in combination can produce the preception of any color.
607533021	Opponent-process theory	the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green
607533022	Place theory	In hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated.
607533023	Conduction hearing loss	Hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea.
607533024	Vestibular Sense	The sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance.
607533025	Gate-control theory	theory that spinal cord contains neurological gate that blocks pains signals or allows them to pass. gate is opened by activity of pain going up small nerve fibers & gate is closed by act of large fibers or by info coming from brain.
607533026	Gestalt	a configuration or pattern of elements so unified as a whole that it cannot be described merely as a sum of its parts
607533027	Visual cliff	a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals
607533028	Phi Phenomenon	an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession
607533029	Circadian rhythm	the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle.
607533030	REM Sleep	rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.
607533031	Alpha waves	the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state.
607533032	Delta waves	the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep.
607533033	Night terrors	a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during Stage 4 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered
607533034	Manifest content	According to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent, or hidden, content)
607533035	Latent content	according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content)
607533036	Dissociation	a state in which some integrated part of a person's life becomes separated from the rest of the personality and functions independently
607533037	Physical Dependence	a physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued.
607533038	Psychological dependence	a psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions
607533039	Depressants	drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions.
607533040	Stimulants	drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.
607533041	Amphetamines	drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes
607533042	Methamphetamine	a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels
607533043	Hallucigans	Psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input.
607533044	Classical conditioning	a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus (US) begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus. Also called Pavlovian or respondent conditioning.
607533045	Extinction	the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.
607533046	Spontaneous recovery	The reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.
607533047	Generalization	the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses
607533048	Discrimination	in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus
607533049	Operant Conditioning	a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher
607533050	Law of effect	(psychology) the principle that behaviors are selected by their consequences
607533051	Positive reinforcement	increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response. Adding something positive to see more of the behavior.
607533052	Negative reinforcement	increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.) Taking away something negative to see more of the behavior.
607533053	Punishment	Occurs when stimulus change immediately follows a response and decreases the future frequency of that type of behavior in similar conditions. Taking something good away to see less of the behavior.
607533054	Schedules of reinforcement	the rule for determining when and how often reinforcers will continue; Four types of schedules: fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, and variable interval; interval means over a time and ratio means an act; partial reinforcement is on a variable schedule whereas continuous reinforcement is on a fixed schedule; variable schedules are more effective in learning.
607533055	Latent learning	Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.
607533056	Intrinsic motivation	A desire to perform a behavior for its own sake.
607533057	Extrinsic motivation	A desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment.
607533058	Observational learning	A type of learning that occurs when an organism's responding is influenced by the observation of others, who are called models.
607533059	Memory	the cognitive processes whereby past experience is remembered
607533060	Long term potentiation	an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory
607533061	Mood congruent memory	the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood
607533062	Parallel processing	The processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.
607533063	Flashbulb memory	A clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.
607533064	Proactive interference	The disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information.
607533065	Automatic processing	unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings
607533066	Amnesia	partial or total loss of memory
607533067	Retroactive interference	The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information.
607533068	Effortful processing	Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.
607533069	Implicit memory	memories we don't deliberately remember or reflect on consciously
607533070	Explicit memory	memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare." (Also called declarative memory.)
607533071	Misinformation effect	Incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event.
607533072	Mnemonics	Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.
607533073	Source amnesia	attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. (Also called source misattribution.) Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories.
618098989	Sigmund Freud	"Psycho"-Psychoanalysis
618098990	Ivan Pavlov	"Had a dog" Created the classical conditioning theory., discovered classical conditioning; trained dogs to salivate at the ringing of a bell
618098991	B.F. Skinner	"Had a box"-experimented with animals and the rewarding and punishment system.-Operant Conditioning
618098992	E.B. Tichener	Cared about the structure of something rather than the entire piece.
618098993	Wilhem Wundt	Introspection- was the father of psychology and created the first psychology lab.
618098994	Charles Sherrington	coined the term synapse to describe the junction between a presynaptic nerve terminal and a postsynaptic spine.
618098995	Ramon Cajal	drew golgi stains, realized that neurons were individual cells that can communicate with each other (neuron doctrine)
618098996	Roger Sperry	studied split brain patients; showed that left/right hemispheres have different functions
618098997	Phineas Gage	Vermont railroad worker who survived a severe brain injury that changed his personality and behavior; his accident gave information on the brain and which parts are involved with emotional reasoning
618098998	Paul Broca	the part of the brain responsible for coordinating muscles involved in speech was named for him, because he first identified it
618098999	Carl Wernicke	discovered area in left temporal lobe (named for him) involved in language comprehension - understanding speech and creating meaningful sentences
618099000	John Watson	behaviorism; emphasis on external behaviors of people and their reactions on a given situation; famous for Little Albert study in which baby was taught to fear a white rat
618099001	Albert Bandura	pioneer in observational learning (AKA social learning), stated that people profit from the mistakes/successes of others; Studies: Bobo Dolls-adults demonstrated 'appropriate' play with dolls, children mimicked play
618099002	John Garcia	Researched taste aversion. Showed that when rats ate a novel substance before being nauseated by a drug or radiation, they developed a conditioned taste aversion for the substance.
618099003	Edward Thorndike	Pioneer in operant conditioning who discovered concepts in intstrumental learning such as the law of effect. Known for his work with cats in puzzle boxes.
618099004	Hermann Ebbinghaus	the first person to study memory scientifically and systematically; used nonsense syllables and recorded how many times he had to study a list to remember it well
618099005	Elizabeth Loftus	cognition and memory; studied repressed memories and false memories; showed how easily memories could be changed and falsely created by techniques such as leading questions and illustrating the inaccuracy in eyewitness testimony
618099006	George Miller	made famous the phrase: "the magical number 7, plus or minus 2" when describing human memory
618099007	Edward Tolman	american psychologist who used the terms cognitive map and latent learning to describe experimental findings that strongly suggested the cognitive factors play a role in animal learning
618099008	Noam Chomsky	language development; disagreed with Skinner about language acquisition, stated there is an infinite # of sentences in a language, humans have an inborn native ability to develop language
618099009	Wolfgang Kohler	Gestalt psychologist that first demonstrated insight through his chimpanzee experiments. He noticed the solution process wasn't slow, but sudden and reflective.
618099010	Alfred Binet	French psychologist remembered for his studies of the intellectual development of children (1857-1911)
618099011	Francis Galton	English scientist (cousin of Charles Darwin) who explored many fields: heredity, meteorology, statistics, psychology, anthropology
618099012	Howard Gardner	devised theory of multiple intelligences: logical-mathematic, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, linguistic, musical, interpersonal, naturalistic
618099013	Charles Spearman	intelligence; found that specific mental talents were highly correlated, concluded that all cognitive abilities showed a common core which he labeled 'g' (general ability)
618099014	Robert Sternberg	intelligence; devised the Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (academic problem-solving, practical, and creative)
618099015	Lewis Terman	professor at Stanford who revised the Binet test for Americans. The test then became the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test. He is also known for his longitudinal research on gifted kids.
618099016	David Wechsler	a psychologist who developed tests similar to the Stanford-Binet IQ test, aimed at both adults and children
618099017	Alfred Kinsey	regarded by some as the father of the scientific study of human sexuality. Published a series of reports which described common sexual behaviors in the US
618099018	Masters and Johnson	among the first to use laboratory experimentation and observation to study the sexual response cycle (1950s-60s); levels include excitement, plateau, orgasm, resolution
618099019	Simon LeVay	Gay scientist that discovered that part of hypothalamus is larger in straight men than in gay men and women.
618099020	James & Lange	emotion theory in which the physiological reaction occurs first and then the emotion is determined
618099021	Cannon & Bard	theory of emotion that the body changes and understanding of the emotion occurs simultaneously from ques in the thalamus
618099022	Schachter & Singer	proposed the Schachter-Singer theory of emotions (that physiological arousal will be interpreted as different emotions depending on environmental cues)
618099023	Paul Ekman	emotion; found that facial expressions are universal
618099024	Jean Piaget	Swiss psychologist remembered for his studies of cognitive development in children (1896-1980)
618099025	Lawrence Kohlberg	moral development; presented boys moral dilemmas and studied their responses and reasoning processes in making moral decisions. Most famous moral dilemma is "Heinz" who has an ill wife and cannot afford the medication. Should he steal the medication and why?
618099026	Erik Erikson	neo-Freudian, humanistic; 8 psychosocial stages of development: theory shows how people evolve through the life span. Each stage is marked by a psychological crisis that involves confronting "Who am I?"
618099027	Harry Harlow	development, contact comfort, attachment; experimented with baby rhesus monkeys and presented them with cloth or wire "mothers;" showed that the monkeys became attached to the cloth mothers because of contact comfort
618099028	Jerome Kagan	Psychologist who believed in more biological view, thought our genes had a lot of effect on our personality and thinks child shyness is caused by autonomic nervous system
618099029	Diane Baumrind	theorist associated with parenting styles - authoritarian, authoritative, permissive, neglectful
618099030	Judith Rich Harris	Wrote the book, "The Nurture Assumption", and wrote about parental and peer influence
618099031	Carol Gilligan	moral development studies to follow up Kohlberg. She studied girls and women and found that they did not score as high on his six stage scale because they focused more on relationships rather than laws and principles. Their reasoning was merely different, not better or worse
618099032	Alfred Adler	1870-1937; Field: neo-Freudian, psychodynamic; Contributions: basic mistakes, style of life, inferiority/superiority complexes, childhood influences personality formation; Studies: Birth Order
618099033	Carl Jung	1875-1961; Field: neo-Freudian, analytic psychology; Contributions: people had conscious and unconscious awareness; archetypes; collective unconscious; libido is all types of energy, not just sexual; Studies: dream studies/interpretation
618099034	Karen Horney	1885-1952; Field: neo-Freudian, psychodynamic; Contributions: criticized Freud, stated that personality is molded by current fears and impulses, rather than being determined solely by childhood experiences and instincts, neurotic trends
618099035	Carl Rogers	1902-1987; Field: humanistic; Contributions: founded person-centered therapy, theory that emphasizes the unique quality of humans especially their freedom and potential for personal growth, unconditional positive regard, fully functioning person
618099036	Abraham Maslow	humanistic psychology; hierarchy of needs-needs at a lower level dominate an individual's motivation as long as they are unsatisfied; self-actualization, transcendence
618099037	Gordon Allport	trait theory of personality; 3 levels of traits: cardinal, central, and secondary
618099038	Hans Eysenck	a British psychologist (born in Germany) noted for his theories of intelligence and personality and for his strong criticism of Freudian psychoanalysis
618099039	Hans Selye	(1907-1982) Psychologist who researched a recurring response to stress that he called the general adaptation syndrome
618099040	Milgram	researcher famous for teacher-learner study on obedience to authority
618099041	Asch	performed famous study on conformity in which people gave an obviously incorrect answer just to conform to the group - line study
618099042	Janus	Roman god of beginnings and endings; often depicted with two faces on gates and arches
618099043	Festinger	experimenter famous for $1 or $20 experiment on cognitive dissonance
618099044	Kelley	Suggested that personal constructs determine behavior
618099045	Zimbardo	experimentor famous for research on how roles influence behavior and the power of the situation in a mock prison

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Child Psychology - Chapter 1 Flashcards

An Introduction to Child Development

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895312621	Nature	- our biological endowment - the genes we receive from our parents
895312622	Nurture	- the environments, both physical and social, that influence our development
933404231	Development - What Counts? - Pattern of Change	- conception --> life span - logical pattern (ie. don't start walking right away) - increase in greater complexity (ie. starting new words, communication)
933404232	Development always moves (forward/backward).	forward
895312623	Continuous Development	- the idea that changes with age occur gradually, in small increments - examples: changes in weight and height, tree growth
895312624	Discontinuous Development	- the idea that changes with age include occasional large shifts - qualitatively different - example: like the transition from caterpillar to cocoon to butterfly
895312625	Stage Theories	- approaches that propose that development involves a series of discontinuous, age-related phases - example: tadpole --> frog
895312626	Cognitive Development	- the development of thinking and reasoning - attention, memory, problem solving, developing strategy
933851494	Cognitive Development (Piaget)	- 4 stages - each characterized by distinct intellectual abilities and ways of understanding the world - discontinuous development
895312627	Neurotransmitters	- chemicals involved in communications among brain cells
895312628	Sociocultural Context	- the physical, social, cultural, economic, and historical circumstances that make up any child's environment
895312629	Socioeconomic Status	- a measure of social class based on income and education
933851495	(Influence by SES) Infancy	- infancy = increasing number of health problems
933851496	(Influence by SES) Childhood	- childhood = increasing social/emotional or behavioral problems
933851497	(Influence by SES) Adolescence	- adolescence = decreasing vocab, IQs, and test scores, increasing number of babies born to high school students, increasing number of high school dropouts
895312630	Scientific Method	- an approach to testing beliefs that involves four steps 1. choosing a question 2. formulating a hypothesis 3. testing the hypothesis 4. drawing a conclusion
895312631	Hypotheses	- educated guesses
895312632	Reliability	- the degree to which independent measurements of a given behavior are consistent
895312633	Interrater Reliability	- the amount of agreement in the observations of different raters who witness the same behavior
895312634	Test-Retest Reliability	- the degree of similarity of a child's performance on two or more occasions
895312635	Validity	- the degree to which a test measures what it is intended to measure
895312636	Internal Validity	- the degree to which effects observed within experiments can be attributed to the variables that the researcher intentionally manipulated
895312637	External Validity	- the degree to which results can be generated beyond the particulars of the research
895312638	Structured Interview	- a research procedure in which all participants are asked to answer the same questions
895312639	Clinical Interview	- a procedure in which questions are adjusted in accord with the answers the interviewee provides
895312640	Naturalistic Observation	- examination of ongoing behavior in an environment not controlled by the researcher - limitations: naturally occurring contexts vary on many dimensions so it is hard to know which ones influenced behavior of interest, important behaviors only occur occasionally
895312641	Structured Observation	- a method that involves presenting an identical situation to each child and recording the child's behavior
895312642	Variables	- attributes that vary across individuals and situations, such as age, gender, and expectations
895312643	Correlational Designs	- studies intended to indicate how variables are related to each other
895312644	Correlation	- the association between two variables - high and high = positive - high and low = negative - CAN'T INFER CAUSATION
933851498	(Correlation) Galton ~1900	- family resemblance - question: is height genetic? - method: heights of many dads and adult sons - positive correlation
933851499	(Correlation) Kids' Shoe Size	- relationship between kids' shoe size and reading skills - shoes get bigger, reading skills get better - 3rd variable of age = latent variable
895312645	Correlation Coefficient	- a statistic that indicates the direction and strength of a correlation
895312646	Direction-of-Causation Problem	- the concept that a correlation between two variables does not indicate which, if either, variable is the cause of the other
895312647	Third-Variable Problem	- the concept that a correlation between two variables may stem from both being influenced by some third variable
895312648	Experimental Designs	- a group of approaches that allow inferences about causes and effects to be drawn - strengths: causal conclusion, tests of specific hypothesis - weaknesses: lab situations --> artificial setting
895312649	Random Assignment	- a procedure in which each child has an equal chance of being assigned to each group within an experiment
895312650	Experimental Control	- the ability of researchers to determine the specific experiences that children have during the course of an experiment
895312651	Experimental Group	- a group of children in an experimental design who are presented the experience of interest
895312652	Control Group	- the group of children in an experimental design who are not presented the experience of interest but in other ways are treated similarly
895312653	Independent Variable	- the experience that children in the experimental group receive - the experience that children in the control group do NOT receive
895312654	Dependent Variable	- a behavior that is measured to determine whether it is affected by exposure to the independent variable
895312655	Cross-Sectional Design	- a research method in which children of different ages are compared on a given behavior or characteristic over a short period of time - strength: most practical (less attention and cost)
895312656	Longitudinal Design	- a method of study in which the same children are studied twice or more over a substantial period of time - lots of info on how kids change over time - strength: best at capturing change and stability - weakness: repetition can affect dependent variables
895312657	Microgenetic Design	- a method of study in which the same children are studied repeatedly over a short period of time - counting-on strategy
895312658	Counting-On Strategy	- counting up from the larger addend the number of times indicated by the smaller addend
913964991	Development always moves (forward/backward).	- forward - example: monopoly game at different ages
913964992	Biological Development	- uncontrollable - growing, getting teeth, fine motor skills, puberty
913964993	Socioemotional Development	- feelings
913964994	Werner's Study	- as long as there was some sort of positive adult figure in a child's life, earlier issues (ie. at birth) didn't affect their future years
913964995	Classical Times	- military upbringing - left to die if considered "defected"
913964996	Medieval Times	- 10 year olds were hanged like adults - no juvenile justice system
913964997	Reformation Period	- children needed salvation (baptism)
913964998	18th Century	- enlightenment period
913964999	(18th Century) Hobbes	- kids were considered inherently selfish and evil - require control
913965000	(18th Century) Rousseau	- nativism (nature) - kids were considered innately pure - corrupted by society - maximum freedom from the beginning - innate stuff (ie. temperament)
913965001	(Late 17th Century to Early 18th Century) Locke	- empiricism (nurture) - tabula rasa, written on by experience - malleable by society - development reflects nurture provided - important role --> growth of character
913965002	19th Century	- industrial age - social reform movements - child welfare - Earl Shaftesbury - kids were seen as cheaper and smaller...more attractive employees
913965003	18th - 19th Century: Freud	- psychosexual theory: develops during childhood - id, ego, superego - childhood was a major impact on mental health - psychodynamic theory - biological drives = crucial influence on development
913965004	Plato	- raising boys = demanding/challenging - children = born with innate knowledge - ultimate goal of education: self control and discipline
913965005	Aristotle	- more connected with fitting child-rearing to the needs of the individual child - mind grows with experience (blackboard at birth)
913965006	Watson	- behaviorist theory: children's development = determined by environment (rewards and punishments)
913965007	G. Stanley Hall	- modern day - questionnaires of kids
913965008	Alfred Binet	- modern day - attention, memory, coordination, communication - IQ test
913965009	Arnold Gesell	- modern day - systematic observations of kids to explain "normal development"
913965010	Today: Mix of...	- nativism and empiricism --> interactionist
913965011	Big Theory in 20th Century	- behaviorism - provide right stimulus
913965012	What counts as nature?	- experience-independent change (ie. puberty) 1. genetic factors (ie. chromosomal abnormalities) 2. maturational tables (ie. learning to walk) 3. hormonal changes (ie. menstruation) 4. reflexes 5. instincts (ie. spider's web, ant's dead reckoning)
913965013	What counts as nurture?	- experience-dependent change 1. environmental factors (ie. native language) 2. learning (ie. mother's voice) 3. effects of experience (ie. food preferences, prejudice)
933404233	Managing Anger (Raising Children)	- express sympathy - find positive alternatives or distractions
933404234	(Managing Anger) Turtle Method	- found successful in one preschool study
933404235	Courtroom	- when shielded from leading questions, 3 to 5 years olds are reliable witnesses
933404236	(Courtroom) The younger the child, the more susceptible they are to...	- leading questions - recall = biased
933404237	Romanian Orphanage - Cognitive Effects	- adopted before 6 months of age → 2% scored mentally retarded at age 6 years - spent 24-42 months in orphanage → 33% scored mentally retarded at age 6 years - 11 year olds still showed deficits
933404238	Romanian Orphanage - Social Effects	- adopted before 6 months → 20% at 6 years showed social effects - no friendships with peers - didn't look to their parents for support - more comfortable when around strangers than those children who weren't raised in this type of orphanage
933851500	Behaviors Involving BOTH Nature and Nurture: Language	- nature: humans learn it, not our pets - nurture: learn the language(s) in our environment
933851501	Behaviors Involving BOTH Nature and Nurture: Food Aversions	- nurture: conditioned response
933851502	(Behaviors Involving BOTH Nature and Nurture) Garcia Experiment	- "Bright, Noisy, Tasty Water" - made water attractive to rat → radiated water to make rat sick → sick rat (after 24 hours) → rat avoids water = adaptive strategy - use taste and smell
933851503	(Behaviors Involving BOTH Nature and Nurture - Garcia Experiment) Species Specific Effects	- same experiment with a quail - use look and sight - same effects and results
933851504	(Garcia Experiment) Behaviors Involving BOTH Nature and Nurture	- nurture: conditioned food avoidance - nature: species-specific affects
933851505	Active Child	- children shape own development - selection of where/what to pay attention to - contributions increase as they grow older - Gibson
933851506	(Active Child) 9-15 Months	- contribution to own development = more evident - examples: talking to self in room, crib speak
933851507	How does change occur?	- effortful attention → voluntary control of emotions and thoughts - inhibiting impulses - controlling emotions - focusing attention
933851508	US Families vs. Mayan Families	- US: children sleep alone early in life - Mayan: children sleep with mother longer in life
933851509	(Scarr) Four Factors That Can Be Different Among Children From Different Families	- genetic differences - differences in treatment by parents and others - differences in reactions to similar experiences - different choices of environments
933851510	(Research) Preferential Looking	- eye test for cataracts - card = grey on one side, striped/patterned on the other
933851511	Mean Monkey Video	- Research Question: Do kids deceive the monkey? At what point? When does the child believe that others can have different thoughts than they do? - IV: age of child, hold other factors constant - DV: which sticker the child chooses when the monkey is asking, sticker shown to mean monkey, do the kids lie?
933851512	Mean Monkey Video - What's Wrong With This Study	- different stickers for each time through the script - some kids may not want to lie in front of an adult - experimenter says slightly different things (should have a script)
940434071	How do children shape their own development?	- attentional patterns - language use - play - friends

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