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| 13850679672 | law of dominance | when 2 organisms homozygous for different traits are crossed to produce hybrids. only exhibit dominant trait | 0 | |
| 13850679673 | law of segregation | during formation fo gametes, 2 traits carried by each parent separates | 1 | |
| 13850679674 | monohybrid cross | cross between organisms hat are each hybrid for one trait | 2 | |
| 13850679675 | testcross/backcross | determines genotype of an organism showing only the dominant trait | 3 | |
| 13850679676 | law of independent assortment | cross between 2 individuals hybrid for 2 or more different traits (Tt x Yy) | 4 | |
| 13850679677 | incomplete dominance | blending (black animal & white animal produce gray animal) | 5 | |
| 13850679678 | codominance | both traits show. there are 2 allelic variants at a single gene locus. | 6 | |
| 13850679679 | multiple allels | when there are more than 2 allelic forms of a gene. ex: human blood types A, B, AB, O | 7 | |
| 13850679680 | pleiotropy | ability of a single gene to affect an organism in several ways ex: cystic fibrosis causes thick mucus that causes pleiotropic effects like poor absorption of nutrients and bronchitis | 8 | |
| 13850679681 | epistasis | 2 separate genes control one trait, but one gene masks the expression of the other. the gene that masks the expression of the other gene is epistatic ex: agouti coat color only occurs with A and B. Without B, A is albino | 9 | |
| 13850679682 | polygenic inheritance | blending of several separate genes that vary along a continuum. ex: two parents who are short can produce child that is tall | 10 | |
| 13850679683 | genomic imprinting | Variation in phenotype depending on whether an allele of from the male or female parent. | 11 | |
| 13850679684 | extranuclear genes | Genes outside the nucleus, in the mitochondria and chloroplasts. ex: defects in mitochondrial genes can cause weakness in muscles | 12 | |
| 13850679685 | multifactorial basis | a genetic component plus a significant environmental influence | 13 | |
| 13850679686 | penetrance | The percentage of individuals with a particular genotype that actually displays the phenotype associated with the genotype. ex: breast cancer gene | 14 | |
| 13850679687 | linked genes | genes on the same chromosome. ex: humans have 46 chromosomes in every cell and therefore have 46 linkage groups. linked genes tend to be inherited together unless separated by crossover | 15 | |
| 13850679688 | autosomes | Any chromosome that is not a sex chromosome. 44 of 46 chromosomes are autosomes | 16 | |
| 13850679689 | sex-linked trait | traits carried on x chromosome | 17 | |
| 13850679690 | recessive sex-linked traits | color blindness and hemophilia | 18 | |
| 13850679691 | The farther apart 2 genes are located on a chromosome, the | more likely they will be separated during meiosis because of crossover | 19 | |
| 13850679692 | site of crossover | chiasma | 20 | |
| 13850679693 | somatic cell | body cell | 21 | |
| 13850679694 | genetic mosaic | some cells have one X inactivated, other cells have other X inactiavted. | 22 | |
| 13850679695 | Barr body | A dense body formed from a deactivated X chromosome. | 23 | |
| 13850679747 | all females have one Barr body. males do not | 24 | ||
| 13850679696 | gene mutation | caused by change in DNA sequence | 25 | |
| 13850679697 | chromosome mutation | can be observed under microscope | 26 | |
| 13850679698 | karyotype | Procedure that analyzes the size, shape, and number of chromosomes | 27 | |
| 13850679699 | chromosomal abberations | deletion inversion (chromosomal fragment reattaches in reverse orientation) translocation (chromosome fragment attaches to nonhomologous chromosome) polyploidy (extra sets of chromosomes) | 28 | |
| 13850679700 | nondisjunction | chromosomes fail to separate during meiosis | 29 | |
| 13850679701 | theory of endosymbiosis | Eukaryotic cells emerged when mitochondria and chloroplasts, once free-living prokaryotes, took up permanent residence inside other larger cells, about 1.5 billion years ago. | 30 | |
| 13850679702 | prokaryotes don't have | nuclei or internal membranes | 31 | |
| 13850679703 | function dictates | form | 32 | |
| 13850679704 | nucleolus | place where rRNA is produced | 33 | |
| 13850679705 | ribosomes | protein factories. found in cytoplasm or ER | 34 | |
| 13850679706 | peroxisomes | contain catalase, which converts hydrogen peroxide into water | 35 | |
| 13850679707 | endomembrane system | consists of Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vesicles, vacuoles, and plasma membrane. regulates protein traffic and performs metabolic functions | 36 | |
| 13850679708 | nucleus | chromosomes wrapped with proteins | 37 | |
| 13850679709 | rough ER | studded with ribosomes. produces proteins | 38 | |
| 13850679710 | smooth ER | 1. production of steroid hormones 2.stores Ca2+ ions 3. detoxifies drugs | 39 | |
| 13850679711 | lysosomes | digest with hydrolytic enzymes | 40 | |
| 13850679712 | mitochondria | site of cellular respiration. have their own DNA | 41 | |
| 13850679713 | vacul=oles | storage. freshwater protists have contractive vac to pump out water | 42 | |
| 13850679714 | chloroplast | have inner membrane system called thylakoids | 43 | |
| 13850679715 | cytoskeleton | 1. microtubules make up cilia, flagella, spindle fibers. spindle fibers separate chromosomes 2. microfilaments made from actin filaments | 44 | |
| 13850679716 | centrioles, centrosomes, MTOCS | organize spindle fibers | 45 | |
| 13850679717 | plasma membrane | fluid mosaic model consists of phospholipid bilayer | 46 | |
| 13850679718 | ligand | molecule that binds to a receptor | 47 | |
| 13850679719 | sodium-potassium pump | pumps Na+ and K+ ions across a nerve cell | 48 | |
| 13850679720 | bulk flow | movement of a fluid in a direction in an organism ex: blood moves my blood pressure and sap goes from source to sink | 49 | |
| 13850679721 | gap junctions | allow materials to pass from cytoplasm of a cell to another. in plants - plasmodesmata | 50 | |
| 13850679722 | 3 stages of cell signaling | 1. reception (ligand binds) 2. transduction (signal converted to a form that bring a response) 3. specific cellular response occurs | 51 | |
| 13850679723 | second messengers | send messages inside signal after reception. ex: cAMP | 52 | |
| 13850679724 | 3 types of cell surface receptors | ion channel receptors, G-protein coupled receptors, and protein kinase receptors | 53 | |
| 13850679725 | GPCRs are on when | it bonds to GTP, which activates adenylyl cyclase that catalyzes the conversion of ATP to cAMP | 54 | |
| 13850679726 | RTKs | membrane receptors that attach phosphates to tyrosines. can trigger multiple pathways at once | 55 | |
| 13850679727 | protein kinases | activate proteins | 56 | |
| 13850679728 | protein phosphatases | inactivate proteins by removing phosphate groups | 57 | |
| 13850679729 | apoptosis | programmed cell death | 58 | |
| 13850679730 | apoptosis is carried out when | embryonic development, genetic damage that could lead to cancer, and plant defense against fungus | 59 | |
| 13850679731 | molecules that can travel across plasma membrane | nonpolar substances. large polar molecules must travel through protein channel | 60 | |
| 13850679732 | 5 special traits of water | 1. high specific heat 2. high heat of vaporization 3. universal solvent 4.strong cohesion-tension (capillary action, transpiration-pull cohesion tension) 5. ice is less dense than water (insulates water) | 61 | |
| 13850679733 | structural isomer | same # atoms, different arrangement | 62 | |
| 13850679734 | cis-trans isomers | differ in arrangement about a double bond | 63 | |
| 13850679735 | enatiomers | mirror images | 64 | |
| 13850679736 | pH | H+ concentration increases, pH decreases | 65 | |
| 13850679737 | carbohydrates | CHO fuel and building material monosaccharides, glucose, galactose, fructose can be joined by dehydration synthesis or condensation | 66 | |
| 13850679738 | lipids | fats, oils, waxes, steroids -most lipids consist of 1 glycerol and 3 fatty acids -cell membranes are made of phospholipids -saturated or unsaturated -energy storage, structural, endocrine | 67 | |
| 13850679739 | proteins | -CHONSP -polymers consisting of units called amino acids bound by peptide bonds -amino acids are made of carboxyl group, amine group, and variable R | 68 | |
| 13850679740 | primary structure | unique linear sequence of amino acids | 69 | |
| 13850679741 | secondary structure | hydrogen bonding within polypeptide molecule. can be alpha helix or beta pleated sheet | 70 | |
| 13850679742 | tertiary structure | 3D shape protein. caused by bonding betwen R groups or disulfide bonds between cysteine amino acids | 71 | |
| 13850679743 | quaternary structure | proteins that consist of more than one polypeptide chain | 72 | |
| 13850679744 | denaturation | In proteins, a process in which a protein unravels and loses its native conformation, thereby becoming biologically inactive. | 73 | |
| 13850679745 | chaperonins | assist in folding of proteins | 74 | |
| 13850679746 | techniques to reveal 3D shape of proteins | X-ray crystallography, NMR spectroscopy, bioinformatics | 75 | |
| 13850679748 | functional groups | 76 | ||
| 13850688899 | first law of thermodynamics | Energy cannot be created or destroyed | 77 | |
| 13850688908 | second law of thermodynamics | when energy is changed from one form to another, some useful energy is always degraded into lower quality energy (usually heat) | 78 | |
| 13850690784 | induced fit model | substrate binding to an active site improves the fit between the two | 79 | |
| 13850692043 | enzymes often require assistance from | cofactors (inorganic) or coenzymes | 80 | |
| 13850694286 | competitive inhibition | substance that resembles the normal substrate competes with the substrate for the active site | 81 | |
| 13850715823 | noncompetitive inhibition aka allosteric regulators | bind to a site separate from active site of enzyme, which changes the enzyme into a shape that prevents enzyme from catalyzing substrate into product | 82 | |
| 13850729438 | feedback inhibition | end product of pathway is allosteric inhibitor | 83 | |
| 13850730229 | cooperativity | binding of one substrate molecule can stimulate binding or activity at other active sites | 84 | |
| 13850737828 | anaerobic respiration | glycolysis + alcoholic fermentation/lactic acid fermentation | 85 | |
| 13850741121 | aerobic respiration | glycolysis + Krebs + electron transport chain + oxidative phosphorylation | 86 | |
| 13850748460 | glycolysis | takes 1 molecule of glucose --> 2 three carbon molecules of pyruvate. also produces ATP by substrate level phosphorylation. PFK is allosteric enzyme for glycolysis | 87 | |
| 13850781951 | citric acid cycle | activated by acetyl coA (pyruvate with coenzyme A). Generates ATP per turn by substrate-level phosphorylation. Remainder of energy reduces NAD and FAD to shuttle electrons to e transport chain. Each turn of Krebs cycle makes 3 NADH, 1 ATP, 1 FADH | 88 | |
| 13851062759 | electron transport chain | carries electrons delivered by NADH & FADH to oxygen. ETC consists of cytochromes. | 89 | |
| 13851089673 | oxidative phosphorylation | ATP is produced through oxidative phosphorylation (chemiosmosis uses potential energy from proton gradient to phosphorylate ADP and produce ATP). produces the most ATP | 90 | |
| 13851091694 | substrate-level phosphorylation | occurs when enzyme kinase transfers phosphate to ADP. produces small amount of ATP during glycolysis & Krebs | 91 | |
| 13851094815 | alcoholic fermentation | anaerobic process in which cells convert pyruvic acid into carbon dioxide and ethyl alcohol; carried out by many bacteria and fungi such as yeasts | 92 | |
| 13851096365 | lactic acid fermentation | The conversion of pyruvate to lactate with no release of carbon dioxide. | 93 | |
| 13851100306 | cholorophyll a | absorbs blue-violet and red light. participates directly in light reactions of photosynthesis | 94 | |
| 13851102869 | what are the steps of non-cyclic photophosphorylation? | 1. PII 2. photolysis: splitting of water for electrons and O2 as waste product 3. ETC: electron flow provides energy for ATP by chemiosmosis. 4. chemiosmosis: ATP formed during light reactions of photosynthesis (proton gradient). 4. NADP: reduced when it picks up 2 protons 5. PI | 95 | |
| 13851115960 | sole purpose of cyclic photophosphorylation? | ATP production | 96 | |
| 13851122057 | what are 2 possible routes for light-dependent reactions? | noncyclic flow or cyclic photophosphorylation | 97 | |
| 13851124659 | what is the main process of light-independent reactions? | Calvin cycle | 98 | |
| 13851125848 | what is the process that occurs in the Calvin cycle? | carbon fixation. Co2 enters cycle and attaches to 5-carbon sugar to become 6-carbon. The 6-carbon breaks down into two 3-carbon phosphoglycerate. | 99 | |
| 13851128290 | what does calvin cycle use to run? | products of light reactions, ATP and NADH | 100 | |
| 13851140670 | what are strategies to minimize water loss in plants? | photorespiration and C4 photosynthesis | 101 | |
| 13851159243 | how is DNA structured? | helix. strands are antiparallel | 102 | |
| 13851161564 | DNA is ____ conservative | semi | 103 | |
| 13851162661 | where does DNA replication begin? | origin of replication | 104 | |
| 13851163227 | DNA replication occurs | in both directions | 105 | |
| 13851165208 | DNA polymerase catalyzes elongation by | adding nucleotides to the growing chain from 5' to 3' | 106 | |
| 13851165870 | the leading strand runs | 5' to 3' | 107 | |
| 13851166274 | the lagging strand runs | 3' to 5' | 108 | |
| 13851167603 | the lagging strand is synthesized in pieces called | Okazaki fragments, which are then sealed by DNA ligase | 109 | |
| 13851169635 | DNA pol III | adds nucleotides | 110 | |
| 13851170428 | DNA pol I | removes the RNA primer and replaces it with DNA | 111 | |
| 13851180287 | what are the steps to go from gene --> protein? | transcription (DNA -> RNA) to translation (RNA -> protein) | 112 | |
| 13851185325 | what does transcription produce? | mRNA aka template strand | 113 | |
| 13851188274 | what does translation do? | converts an mRNA message into a polypeptide or protein | 114 | |
| 13858403850 | mRNA base triplets are called | codons | 115 | |
| 13858410787 | RNA polymerase separates the 2 DNA strands and | connects RNA nucleotides as they base-pair along the template strand | 116 | |
| 13858453921 | the DNA sequence that RNA polymerase attaches to is called | the promoter | 117 | |
| 13858472383 | 3 stages of transcription | initiation, elongation, termination | 118 | |
| 13858500748 | transcription initiation complex is made of | transcription factors + RNA pol II | 119 | |
| 13858512587 | what are 2 post-transcriptional modifications to RNA? | 5' cap and poly-A tail | 120 | |
| 13858526861 | snRNA is involved in ______. | excision of introns and joining of exons | 121 | |
| 13858542719 | tRNA functions in transferring amino acids from cytoplasm to ____ | a ribosome | 122 | |
| 13858578700 | what are on the ends of tRNA? | amino acid, anticodon | 123 | |
| 13858603506 | a ribosome is composed of | rRNA and protein | 124 | |
| 13858609833 | What are the 3 binding sites for tRNA? | A, P, E | 125 | |
| 13858765151 | what are 2 types of point mutations? | Base pair substitutions & Base pair insertions or deletions | 126 | |
| 13859104357 | operons | inducible or repressible clusters of genes transcribed as a single mRNA | 127 | |
| 13859109786 | 3 parts of operon | operator, promoter, genes of the operon | 128 | |
| 13859149143 | regulatory genes produce ______ | repressor proteins that may bind to operator site and block RNA pol, turning the operon off | 129 | |
| 13859159274 | a repressible operon is typically | on. anabolic | 130 | |
| 13859159275 | a inducible operon is typically | off. catabolic | 131 | |
| 13859175640 | DNA methylation causes DNA to become _____ | tightly packed, reducing gene expression | 132 | |
| 13859187027 | histone acetylation causes chromatin to become _____ | less packed, encouraging transcription | 133 | |
| 13859204825 | epigenetic inheritance | inheritance of traits transmitted by mechanisms that do not involve the nucleotide sequence (DNA expression is different) | 134 | |
| 13859240490 | what 2 types of RNA can block gene expression? | micro RNA & interfering RNAs | 135 | |
| 13859298529 | what 3 processes lead to different cell types in an organism? | cell division, cell differentiation, morphogenesis | 136 | |
| 13859310179 | oncogenes are | cancer causing genes | 137 | |
| 13859315246 | proto-oncogenes become oncogenes when | a mutation occurs that increases production | 138 | |
| 13859322687 | what is an important tumor-suppressing gene? | p53 | 139 | |
| 13859543828 | operator | a sequence of nucleotides near the start of an operon to which an active repressor can attach | 140 | |
| 13859548314 | RNA polymerase | Enzyme similar to DNA polymerase that binds to DNA and separates the DNA strands during transcription | 141 | |
| 13859654760 | transcription factors | help RNA polymerase bind to promoter | 142 | |
| 13859757168 | primer are to DNA as promoter is to | RNA | 143 | |
| 13859798201 | lac operon is an example of | an inducible operon (typically off, catabolic). the presence of lactose turns it on |  | 144 |
| 13859842151 | trp operon is an example of | a repressible operon (typically on, anabolic) |  | 145 |
| 13859932070 | prions are pathogens that | are misfolded, infectious proteins that cause the misfoldings of normal proteins in brain cells of various species | 146 | |
| 13859940660 | an example of a prion disease | mad cow disease | 147 | |
| 13859961125 | recombinant DNA is | artificial DNA, a combo of 2 organisms ex: human DNA & E. coli | 148 | |
| 13859966959 | plasmid | A small, circular section of extra DNA | 149 | |
| 13859982516 | restriction enzymes can | cut DNA at specific nucleotides | 150 | |
| 13864660317 | restriction enzymes are used in | genetic engineering | 151 | |
| 13864751187 | DNA ligase | enzyme that chemically links DNA fragments together | 152 | |
| 13864837605 | steps of gene cloning | 1. identify and isolate gene of interest and cloning vector 2. cut the gene of interest and vector w/ same restriction enzyme (giving plasmid and human gene same sticky ends) 3. join the two pieces of DNA 4. get the vector carrying the gene of interest into a host cell, (the plasmids are taken up by the bacterium by transformation) 5.select for cells that have been transformed | 153 | |
| 13864884511 | nucleic acid hybridization | the base pairing of one strand of a nucleic acid to a complementary sequence on another strand. used to identify genes of interest | 154 | |
| 13864894457 | PCR (polymerase chain reaction) | is used to copy and amplify minute quantities of DNA | 155 | |
| 13864899255 | gel electrophoresis | The separation of nucleic acids or proteins, on the basis of their size and electrical charge, by measuring their rate of movement through an electrical field in a gel. | 156 | |
| 13865148178 | restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) | small differences in DNA sequences that act as DNA fingerprints. used in rape and paternity tests | 157 | |
| 13865836157 | DNA microarray assays | compare patterns of gene expression in different tissues, at different times, or under different conditions | 158 | |
| 13865842651 | homeotic genes | Genes that determine basic features of where a body part is. | 159 | |
| 13866015285 | Griffith proved | transformation in bacteria | 160 | |
| 13866017972 | Meselson and Stahl proved | that DNA replicates in a semiconservative fashion | 161 | |
| 13866019765 | Hershey and Chased discovered | nuclear material in the bacteriophage, not the protein coat, infects a bacterium. | 162 | |
| 13866024773 | Rosalind Franklin | Used X-ray diffraction to discover the double-helical structure of DNA. | 163 | |
| 13893295831 | G0 phase | A nondividing state in which a cell has left the cell cycle. | 164 | |
| 13893300152 | G1 checkpoint | "restriction point", if a cell receives a go-ahead signal at the checkpoint, it will complete the G1,S,G2, and M phases and divide, if it does not receive a go-ahead signal at that point, it will exit the cycle, switching into the G0 phase | 165 | |
| 13893381436 | CO2 is carried in the | plasma | 166 | |
| 13893387322 | what is the blood buffer system called? | carbonic acid-bicarbonate ion system | 167 | |
| 13893427034 | base and acid of blood buffer system? | carbonic acid lowers pH bicarbonate highers it | 168 | |
| 13893488927 | atria | the two upper chambers of the heart, receive blood | 169 | |
| 13893493161 | ventricles | the two lower chambers of the heart, and they pump blood out to the lungs and body. | 170 | |
| 13893509411 | examples of temperature regulation | shivering, migration | 171 | |
| 13893524317 | ectotherms | animals that are not able to control their body temperature | 172 | |
| 13893528945 | endotherms | warm blooded, use metabolic processes to produce body heat | 173 | |
| 13893558278 | north-south cline | Anatomical difference across a geographic range (small ear rabbits vs large ear rabbits) | 174 | |
| 13893576008 | osmoregulation | regulation of solute concentrations and water balance by a cell or organism | 175 | |
| 13893584298 | 3 types of nitrogenous waste | urea, uric acid, ammonia | 176 | |
| 13893664528 | filtration is kidneys is | passive and non-selective | 177 | |
| 13893677791 | secretion in kidneys is | active and highly selective. uptake of contaminants not filtered into Bowman's capsule | 178 | |
| 13893690086 | reabsorption in kidneys is | passive, active, and selective. movement of solutes from filtrate to blood | 179 | |
| 13893735801 | nephron | Functional unit of the kidney, consisting of a glomerulus, renal tubule, and collecting tubule. | 180 | |
| 13894847297 | aldosterone | Hormone that stimulates the kidney to retain sodium ions and water. in response to decrease in blood pressur eor volume | 181 | |
| 13894853682 | ADH | released in response to dehydration due to excessive sweating or inadequate water intake | 182 | |
| 13894869179 | renin | hormone secreted by the kidney that raises blood pressure | 183 | |
| 13895013057 | positive feedback | Feedback that tends to magnify a process or increase its output. | 184 | |
| 13895013058 | negative feedback | a mechanism of response in which a stimulus initiates reactions that reduce the stimulus (hen there is enough of thyroxin, the hypothalamus stops stimulating the pituitary) | 185 | |
| 13897086144 | eyeballs are an example of signal transduction pathway | -photons pass through lens -absorbed by photoreceptors -signal transduction pathway -G protein signaling mechanism triggered - | 186 | |
| 13906587410 | what is the passage of a nerve impulse? | receptor -> sensory neuron -> interneuron -> motor neuron -> effector |  | 187 |
| 13906597323 | effector | gland/muscle | 188 | |
| 13906625700 | membrane potential | difference in electrical charge between cytoplasm (-) and extracellular fluid (+) | 189 | |
| 13906632157 | polarized state (resting potential) | unstimulated. -70mV | 190 | |
| 13906633925 | the sodium potassium pump | maintains polarization | 191 | |
| 13906636780 | a stimulus must be strong enough to overcome | the resting threshold, or resting potential | 192 | |
| 13906672256 | if a stimulus triggers a sodium ion-gated channel, sodium flows into the cell and this results in | in decrease in polarization | 193 | |
| 13906678329 | if a stimulus triggers a potassium ion-gated channel, potassium flows into the cell and this results in | membrane potential increases, membrane becomes hyperpolarized | 194 | |
| 13906686450 | esterase | An enzyme that breaks down excess neurotransmitter | 195 | |
| 13906917113 | example of cell signaling | activation of helper T cells that activate cytotoxic Tc cells | 196 | |
| 13907348310 | 197 |
