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| 31086154 | Cyrus the Great | established massive Persian empire across the norhtern Mediterranean and into northwestern India by 500 BCE; successor state to Mesopotamian empires | 0 | |
| 31086155 | Zoroastrianism | new religion developed by Persians; animist religion that saw material existence as battle between forces of good and evil; stressed importance of moral choice; righteous lived on after death in "House of Song"; chief religion of Persian Empire | 1 | |
| 31086156 | Olympic games | one of the pan-Hellenic rituals observed by all Greek city-states; involved athletic competitions and ritual celebrations | 2 | |
| 31086157 | Pericles | most famous Greek political figure; dominated Athenian politics; guided development of Athenian Empire; died during early ages of Peloponnesian War | 3 | |
| 31086158 | Peloponnesian Wars | wars in which Athens and Sparta fought for control of Greece (431-404 BCE); resulted in Sparta victory but failure to achieve political unification of Greece | 4 | |
| 31087185 | Philip II of Macedon | ruled Macedon from 359 to 336 BCE; founder of centralized kingdom; later conquered rest of Greece, which was subjected to Macedonian authority | 5 | |
| 31087186 | Hellenistic period | culture associated with the spread of Greek influence as a result of Macedonian conquerers; often seen as the combination of Greek culture with eastern political forms | 6 | |
| 31087187 | Alexandria, Egypt | one of many cities of that name founded by Alexander the Great; site of ancient Mediterranean's greatest library; center of literary studies | 7 | |
| 31087188 | Roman republic | the balanced constitution of Rome from 510 to 47 BCE; featured an arictocratic senate, a panel of magistrates, and several popular assemblies | 8 | |
| 31125774 | Punic Wars | fought between Rome and Carthage to estbalish dominance in the western Mediterranean; won by Rome after three separate conflicts | 9 | |
| 31125775 | Carthage | originally a Phoenician colony in northern Africa; became a major port and commercial power in the western Mediterannean; fought the Punic Wars with Rome for dominance of the western Mediterranean | 10 | |
| 31125776 | Hannibal | great Carthaginian general during Second Punic War; successfully invaded Italy but failed to conquer Rome; finally defeated at Battle of Zama | 11 | |
| 31125777 | Julius Caesar | Roman general responsible for conquest of Gaul; brought army back to Rome and overthrew republic; assassinated in 44 BCE by conservative senators | 12 | |
| 31125778 | Augustus Caesar | name given to Octavian following his defeat of Mark Anthony and Cleopatra; first emperor of Rome | 13 | |
| 31125779 | Constantine | Roman emperor from 312 to 337 BCE; established second capital at Constantinople; attempted to use religious force of Christianity to unify empire spiritually | 14 | |
| 31125780 | direct democracy | literally rule of the people; as interpreted in Athens, all decisions emanated from popular assembly without intermediation of elected representatives | 15 | |
| 31125781 | polis | city-state form of government; typical of Greek political organization from 800 to 400 BCE | 16 | |
| 31125782 | Senate | assembly of Roman aristocrats; advised on policy within the republic; one of the early elements of the Roman constitution | 17 | |
| 31125783 | consuls | two chief executives or magistrates of the Roman republic; elected by an annual assembly dominated by aristocracy | 18 | |
| 31125784 | Cicero | conservative Roman senator; Stoic philosopher; one of great orators of his day; killed in reaction to assassination of Julius Caesar | 19 | |
| 31125785 | Aristotle | Greek philosopher; teacher of Alexander the Great; knowledge based on observation of phenomena in material world | 20 | |
| 31125786 | Stoics | Hellenistic group of philosophers; emphasized inner moral independencecultivated by strict discipline of the body and personal bravery | 21 | |
| 31125787 | Socrates | Athenian philosopher of later 5th century BCE; tutor of Plato; urged rational reflection of moral decisions; condemned to death for corrupting minds of Athenian young | 22 | |
| 31125788 | Plato | Greek philosopher; knowledge based on consideration of ideal forms outside the material world; proposed ideal form of government based on abstract principles in which philosophers ruled | 23 | |
| 31125789 | Sophocles | Greek writer of tragedies; author of Oedipus Rex | 24 | |
| 31125790 | Iliad | Greek epic poem attributed to Homer but possibly the work of many authors; defined gods and human nature that shaped Greek myths | 25 | |
| 31125791 | Odyssey | Greek epic poem attributed to Homer but possibly the work of many authors; defined gods and human nature that shaped Greek myths | 26 | |
| 31125792 | Doric | along with Ionian and Corinthian, distinct style of Hellenistic architecture; the least ornate of the three styles | 27 | |
| 31129021 | city-state | form of political organization typical of Mesopotamian civilizations; consisted of agricultural hinterlands ruled by an urban-based king | 28 | |
| 31129022 | twelve tables | first code of laws introduced by early Roman republic; introduced by 450 BCE | 29 |
