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| 126641486 | Homo sapiens sapiens | the newest human breed. All current humans are descendents of these. Originated 12,000 years ago in Africa | 0 | |
| 126641487 | difference between B.C. and B.C.E and A.D. and C.E. | B.C. and A.D. are Christian terms referring to "before Christ" and "after death". Historians use "before common era" and "common era" to record history from a non-religious standpoint | 1 | |
| 126641488 | Neolithic Age | also known as "new stone age". Occurred between 8000 and 5000 B.C.E. People started adapting to agriculture, and plants & animals were domesticated. | 2 | |
| 126641489 | Neolithic Revolution | the development of agriculture. Took over 1000 years. People started permanently settling in one spot. Agriculture supported large populations, and skilled crafts and sciences started to develop. Metals were also discovered. | 3 | |
| 126641490 | Bronze Age | metal working became a common place, and stone tools were rarely used. Lasted from 4000 to 1500 B.C.E. Started with copper, then bronze was later introduced. Used metal for farming tools, weapons, and artisan tools. | 4 | |
| 126641491 | civilization | societies that rely on agriculture and have the ability to produce surpluses of food. Also could be groups of nonfarming people or merchants. Have a hierarchy of inequality. | 5 | |
| 126641492 | cuneiform | writing based on wedge like characters. started to appear in the Middle East around 3500 B.C.E. | 6 | |
| 126641493 | nomads | cattle and sheep herding societies found on the outer edges of civilized societies. Referred to as barbarians by civilized people. | 7 | |
| 126641494 | Mesopotamia | location of first civilization developed from scratch. Located in Middle East. Farmers used metal and invented the wheel. Started pottery industry. | 8 | |
| 126641495 | Sumerians | those who lived in Sumer. Developed a cuneiform alphabet with 2000 symbols. Had different forms of art, such as statues. Made developments in science and complex agriculture, and started to study astronomy. Developed system of numbers. | 9 | |
| 126641496 | Ziggurat | massive tower that served as a temple for the Sumerians. First example of their monumental architecture. Rituals, prayers, and offerings were held, and were led by professional preists. | 10 | |
| 126641497 | Babylonians | brought decline after conquest. Extended empire and brought civilization to the Middle East. Unified Mesopotamia. | 11 | |
| 126641498 | Hammurabi | King of the Empire of Babylon. Introduced the most famous early code of law. Established rules for procedure in court, property rights, and implemented harsh punishments for crimes. | 12 | |
| 126641499 | pharaoh | a king who possessed large amounts of power. | 13 | |
| 126641500 | pyramids | complex tombs built for pharaohs. Started being built in 2700 B.C.E | 14 | |
| 126641501 | Kush | a kingdom that interacted with and invaded Egypt. | 15 | |
| 126641502 | Indus River | river located in Himalayas that supported many large cities, like Harappa. Also the location of a prosperous civilization where the city houses had running water, and traded with Mesopotamia. | 16 | |
| 126641503 | Harappa & Mohenjo Daro | large cities supported by the Indus River. Houses had running water. | 17 | |
| 126641504 | Huanghe River | river located in China. Recorded half legend half history of early kings. Had an organized state, and regulated irrigation. Produced advanced technology and learned to ride horses. Skilled in pottery. Used bronze and iron. Used ideographic symbols as style of writing. | 18 | |
| 126641505 | ideographic symbols | pictographic characters used to create new concepts in Chinese. Became typical Chinese writing and was a huge improvement from knotted ropes and scratches on bone previously used. | 19 | |
| 126641506 | Phoenicians | made a simplified alphabet with only 22 letters which became a predecessor of Greek/ Latin alphabets. Improved Egyptian number system. Set up colony cities in North Africa and the coast of Europe. | 20 | |
| 126641507 | Mandate of Heaven | divine source of political authenticity for Chinese rulers. Established by Zhou to justify the overthrow of the Shang | 21 | |
| 126641508 | monotheism | exclusive worship of one god. Introduced by Jews in western civilization. | 22 | |
| 126641509 | Dao | name for a way to seek the harmony of a balanced opposite. Refers to the balance that comes from opposites. Also refers to ancient Chinese philosophy | 23 | |
| 126641510 | Qin Dynasty | Qin= whole country. Followed Warring States period. Innovations in politics and culture took place. Standardized coinage, weights, and measurements were used. Made a Chinese written script uniform. Furthered agriculture, irrigation, and manufacturing. Short lived. Attacked formal culture | 24 | |
| 126641511 | Shi Huangdi | Brutal ruler of Qin Dynasty. Became effective by handling internal disorder, and worked to undo the power of the aristocrats. ordered nobles to appear in court. Carefully selected officials from the non aristocrats. Powerful armies crushed regional resistance. | 25 | |
| 126641512 | Great Wall | a 3000 mile long wall, wide enough for two chariots to pass by. Largest construction project in human history. Built to guard Chinese against barbarian invasions. Built under rule of Shi Huangdi. | 26 | |
| 126641513 | Han Dynasty | lasted for over 4000 years. Rounded out basic political and intellectual structure. Gave rise to direct contact with Middle East and developed contact to Parthian Empire in the Middle East. Most famous ruler= Wu Ti. He enforced peace throughout Asia. He embraced more territory than population. Workings of bureaucracy improved. The dynasty declined after 2 centuries. | 27 | |
| 126641514 | Kung Fuzi | Also known as Confucius. Devoted to teaching and preached ideas of political virtue & good government. Saw himself as a spokesman for Chinese tradition. One of his beliefs: If people could be taught to emphasize personal virtue, a solid political life would naturally result. Fathers and husbands were leaders of the family. Developed a system of ethics and recommended obedience & respect. Said rulers should be humble. | 28 | |
| 126641515 | legalism | alternate system of political thought. Disdained Confucian virtues in favor of authoritarian state ruled by force. Army would control and people would labor. Never captured widespread approval. | 29 | |
| 126641516 | Laozi | Furthered Daoism in China. Stressed that nature contains a divine impulse that directs all life. | 30 | |
| 126641517 | "mean" people | people with the lowest status in China's social structure. Had unskilled jobs like rough transport. Punished for crime more harshly than other groups of people. | 31 | |
| 126641518 | Confucian bureaucracy | family structures closely linked to political and cultural goals. Technology, religion, philosophy, and political structure evolved with little outside contact. Chinese saw world as large island of civilizations surrounded by barbarians. Confucianism brought vital support to bureaucracy to make it a trained corps with some common ideals. | 32 | |
| 126641519 | Alexander the Great | Persian leader who invaded India. Didn't establish durable empire but kept important Indian contacts with Hellenistic culture. Tried to combine Greek and Persian cultures. | 33 | |
| 126641520 | monsoon | torrential rain that is critical for farming. Very inconsistent year for year. Important because they are needed for farming and irrigation, and the crops grown support the large populations. | 34 | |
| 126641521 | Aryans | IndoEuropean migrants and nomads that were hunters and gatherers from central Asia. Eventually come to terms with agriculture but still impacts culture with their own. Indian agriculture later began to extend and the Aryans used stone tools to clear the dense vegetation. Developed Sanskrit and Vedas. Also followed the caste system. Patriarchal family structure. Heaven = Moksha. | 35 | |
| 126641522 | Sanskrit | literary epics that were passed down orally and eventually written down. Became first literary language of new culture. The sacred books of sanskrit were called Vedas. | 36 | |
| 126641523 | Mahabharata | India's greatest epic poem. involves real and mythical battles | 37 | |
| 126641524 | Ramayana | epic tale of adventures. Involves real and mythical battles. | 38 | |
| 126641525 | Upanishads | epic poems with a more mystical religious flavor. | 39 | |
| 126641526 | Varnas | name for Aryan social classes. Partly enforced in agricultural societies. Consisted of Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, Sudras, and Brahmans. | 40 | |
| 126641527 | untouchables | lowest class of varnas. Limited jobs available. Believed to devile others from different classes. | 41 | |
| 126641528 | Indra | god of thunder and strength in Indian history. | 42 | |
| 126641529 | Chandragupta Maurya | young soldier who siezed power along the Ganges river. Became first Indian ruler of Mauryan Dynasty | 43 | |
| 126641530 | Mauryan Dynasty | Borrowed ideas from Persians or Alexander the Great. Developed bureaucracy and postal service. Relied on ruler and military power | 44 | |
| 126641531 | Ashoka | Chandragupta's grandson who became governor in two provinces. Influenced by both Brahman and Buddhism. Extended Mauryan conquests. Gained control of all of India except tip. Was compassionate and bloodthirsty. Worked to improve trade and communication. | 45 | |
| 126641532 | Dharma | the law of moral consequences. could unite and discipline diverse people. | 46 | |
| 126641533 | Guptas | a line of kings that established a large empire. Preferred to negotiate with princes and marry within the family. Overturned by the Huns. Had multiple languages within the empire. Qualified as a golden age. | 47 | |
| 126641534 | Guru | a mystic or Brahman that served as a teacher of princes of the imperial court of the Guptas | 48 | |
| 126641535 | Shiva & Vishnu | Shiva= destroyer; Vishnu= preserver. Hindu gods | 49 | |
| 126641536 | Reincarnation | the idea that souls don't die when bodies do, but are rather passed on to other beings. It brought beings higher and higher in the caste system until it ultimately reached the soul of a Brahma. | 50 | |
| 126641537 | Buddha | actual name= Gautama. Indian prince who questioned the fairness of earthly life within poverty and misery. Also known as the enlightened one. A Hindu Mystic. Traveled and gathered disciples to spread his ideas. Denied the validity of the caste system. | 51 | |
| 126641538 | Nirvana | Buddhist state of enlightenment and tranquility. Idea of destruction opening a door to a world with no suffering and decay. Stressed self control. | 52 | |
| 126641539 | Stupas | spherical shrines in honor of Buddha. | 53 | |
| 126641540 | Cyrus the Great | established a large Persian Empire across the Northern Middle East and into Northwestern India. Empire established in 550 B.C.E. | 54 | |
| 126641541 | Zoroastrianism | new religion developed by the Persians | 55 | |
| 126641542 | Olympic games | they united the Greek city states. Each city state was represented and could participate in the games. | 56 | |
| 126641543 | Pericles | most famous political figure in Greece that dominated Athenian politics. Ruled through wise influence and negotiation. He wasn't able to prevent war between the Athenians and Sparta. | 57 | |
| 126641544 | Peloponnesian Wars | caused political decline when Athens and Sparta both wanted control of Greece. Macedonian kings conquered the cities. | 58 | |
| 126641545 | Phillip II of Macedon | won crucial battle of Peloponnesian wars. His son extended the Macedonian empire. | 59 | |
| 126641546 | Hellenistic period | a period of influence from the Hellenes. Greek art and culture merged with other Middle Easter forms. | 60 | |
| 126641547 | Alexandria | an important scientific center was established here and trade flourished. | 61 | |
| 126641548 | Roman Republic | included an aristocratic senate, a panel of magistrates, and popular assemblies. It extended over the Italian peninsula and conquered southern Greek colonies. It gave Rome an early and strong military orientation. | 62 | |
| 126641549 | Punic Wars | a series of wars fought between Rome and Carthage. Fought to establish dominance in the western Mediterranean. | 63 | |
| 126641550 | Carthage | It becomes a major part and commercial power in the western Mediterranean. | 64 | |
| 126641551 | Hannibal | Carthaginian general who led the Carthaginians in the Punic wars, and used elephants in battle. | 65 | |
| 126641552 | Diocletian | Roman emperor who restored the empire by improving administration and tax collection. | 66 | |
| 126641553 | Constantine | Roman Emperor who established the second capital (Constantinople) and attempted to unite the empire with Christianity. | 67 | |
| 126641554 | Polis | Greek word for city state. Typical Greek form of government. | 68 | |
| 126641555 | Direct Democracy | "rule of the people"' all decisions made by randomly chosen assembly. No elected officials. | 69 | |
| 126641556 | Senate | assembly of Roman aristocrats. Advised on policy within the republic. An early element of Roman constitution. | 70 | |
| 126641557 | Consuls | two chief executives of Roman Republic. Elected by an annual assembly that was dominated by aristocracy. | 71 | |
| 126641558 | Aristotle | Greek philosopher who taught Alexander the Great. Stressed the importance of moderation and balance. | 72 | |
| 126641559 | Stoics | emphasized inner moral independence, strict discipline of the body, and bravery. Hellenistic group of philosophers. | 73 | |
| 126641560 | Socrates | Athenian philosopher who tutored Plato. Emphasized reflection on moral decision. Condemned to death for corrupting young Athenian minds. | 74 | |
| 126641561 | Plato | Greek philosopher who considered ideal forms outside the material world. Suggested a philosopher ruling government | 75 | |
| 126641562 | Sophocles | Greek writer of tragedies; wrote Oedipus Rex. | 76 | |
| 126641563 | Illiad and the Odyssey | defined gods and human nature that shaped Greek myths. Written by Homer. Epic poems that helped shape Greek mythos. | 77 | |
| 126641564 | Doric | least ornate decorIonic- moderately ornate decor | 78 | |
| 126641565 | Corinthian | most ornate decor | 79 | |
| 126641566 | Axum | rival kingdom that defeated Kush. Eventually defeated by Ethiopia. Located in European highlands and was strongly influenced by the Arabian peninsula. Eventually converted to Christianity. | 80 | |
| 126641567 | Ethiopia | located in highlands of eastern Africa as a Christian kingdom. Under rule of dynasty of Lalaibela. Maintained Christianity throughout Muslim expansion. Both had strong trade ties to the Mediterranean world until after the fall of Rome in 476. | 81 | |
| 126641568 | silk roads | trade routes that ran from western China to central Asia. Transmitted goods and ideas among civilizations. | 82 | |
| 126641569 | Shintoism | Japan's national religion as on 700 C.E. Provided worship of political rulers and spirits of nature (god of rice). Local shrines and rituals revolved around Shinto beliefs. Very simple religion. | 83 | |
| 126641570 | Olmec Culture | many impressive achievements. Explores stones such as jade. Blended human images with animals through religious statues. Produced accurate calendar. Disappeared c. 400 B.C.E. | 84 | |
| 126641571 | Maya | emerged in South Mexico and central America. Contemporary with Teotihuacan. Had monumental architecture, written language, calendar, math systems, and a highly developed religion. | 85 | |
| 126641572 | Inca | created empire incorporating various Andean cultures. | 86 | |
| 126641573 | Polynesian peoples | reached Fiji and Samoa. Settlement of Hawaii; introduction to new animals. | 87 | |
| 126641574 | Yellow Turbins | name for leaders of Daoism. Promised a golden age would be brought about by divine magic. Attacked weakness of emperor and the self indulgence of the bureaucracy | 88 | |
| 126641575 | Rajput | name for regional princes of the Gupta empire in India. Controlled small states and emphasized military prowess. | 89 | |
| 126641576 | Islam | Middle eastern religion originated in 610 C.E. on Arab peninsula. Literally means submission. Based on prophecy of Muhammad. | 90 | |
| 126641577 | Allah | name for supreme god in monotheistic Islam | 91 | |
| 126641578 | Byzantine Empire | product of late imperial Rome; not a balanced result of Classical Mediterranean civilization. Spoke Greek. Didn't control whole northern Middle East. Retained Mediterranean culture, mostly Greek. Capital= Constantinople. | 92 | |
| 126641579 | Justinian | ruled Byzantine empire from 527-565 C.E. Tried to restore unity of old Roman Empire. Issued most famous compilation on Roman law. | 93 | |
| 126641580 | Augustine | great Christian theologian and Bishop of northern Africa. Champion of Christian doctrine against heresies; important in long term development of Christian thought on issues like predestination. | 94 | |
| 126641581 | Coptic church | branch of Christianity; still survives today. created new doctrines | 95 | |
| 126641582 | bodhisattvas | Buddhist holy men who built up spiritual merits during life. Prayers after death could aid people to achieve reflected holiness. | 96 | |
| 126641583 | Mahayana | name for East Asian from of Buddhism also known as "greater vehicle". Retained basic Buddhist beliefs but increased emphasis on Buddha himself. | 97 | |
| 126641584 | Jesus of Nazareth | believed by Christians as the son of God. Preached widely in Israel and gathered a group of disciples. He was crucified then came back. Spread message of one God only. | 98 | |
| 126641585 | Paul | early convert to Christianity. One of the first Christian missionaries. Moved away from insistence that adherents of the new religion followed Jewish law. Used Greek as language for the Church. | 99 | |
| 126641586 | Pope | bishop of Rome who guided the whole Christian church in western Europe. | 100 | |
| 126641587 | Benedict | started a monastery among Italian peasants. Created Benedictine Rule, which spread quickly to other monasteries. Led people away from worship of Apollo. Paralleled development of Basil's rules in the Byzantine Empire | 101 | |
| 126641588 | Qur'an | holy Islam book containing Allah's revelations to Muhammad | 102 | |
| 126641589 | Muhammad | nomadic clan leader; hero of Islam because of revelations from Allah. Lost mother and father at early age. Influenced Judaism and Christianity from Syria | 103 | |
| 126641590 | Shaykhs | tribe/ clan leaders; typically men with larger herds; several wives, many children and servants (slave family) | 104 | |
| 126641591 | Mecca | Located along the Red Sea on the Arabian peninsula. Founded by the Umayadd clan of Quraysh. Site of the Ka'ba and original home of the prophet Muhammad. Location of chief religious point for Islam. | 105 | |
| 126641592 | Ka'ba | one of Pre-Islamic Arabia's most revered religious shrines. Attracts religious pilgrims and merchants. Site of obligatory clan truce. | 106 | |
| 126641593 | Medina | Also known as Yathrib. Located northeast of Mecca. Location where Muhammad fled to from Mecca. | 107 | |
| 126641594 | caliph | political and religious successor to Muhammad | 108 | |
| 126641595 | Ridda Wars | Restored unity of Islam after defeating rival prophets and some larger clans. | 109 | |
| 126641596 | mawali | non Arab converts to Islam | 110 | |
| 126641597 | Dhimmi | Jews and Christians who lived in Islamic territories | 111 | |
| 126641598 | wazir | chief administrative official under the caliph | 112 | |
| 126641599 | dhows | Arab sailing vessels that strongly influenced European ship design. | 113 | |
| 126641600 | Ayan | wealthy landed elite that emerged in the early decades of Abbasid rule. | 114 | |
| 126641601 | bedouin | non Jewish Arab | 115 | |
| 126641602 | Gabriel | angel that gave Muhammad his revelations | 116 | |
| 126641603 | Hijra | name for Muhammad's flight to Medina | 117 | |
| 126641604 | Umma | community of the faithful. Allows political and religious unity among clans | 118 | |
| 126641605 | Jihad | religious war | 119 | |
| 126641606 | Ramadan | period of fasting in Islamic tradition; part of 5 pillars | 120 | |
| 126641607 | Shahada | confession of faith/ statement of belief in Islamic tradition; part of 5 pillars | 121 | |
| 126641608 | Zakat | almsgiving in 5 pillars of Islamic tradition | 122 | |
| 126641609 | Hajj | pilgrimage to Mecca as a devout Muslim | 123 | |
| 126641610 | Abu Bakr | cousin of Muhammad; selected as caliph after Muhammad | 124 | |
| 126641611 | Uthman Umayyad | Muslim caliph who was assassinated by mutinous warriors returning from warfare in Egypt. | 125 | |
| 126641612 | Ali | 4th caliph; related to Muhammad. Replaced my Mu'awiya | 126 | |
| 126641613 | Sunnis | Muslims who shared common Islamic beliefs but also believed that all caliphs should be chosen from those worthy. | 127 | |
| 126641614 | Shi'as | Muslims who shared common Islamic beliefs but also believed that all caliphs should be descendents of Muhammad | 128 | |
| 126641615 | jizya | tax on "non believers" | 129 | |
| 126641616 | al-Mahdi | Third Abbasid caliph. Attempted and failed to reconcile moderates among Shi'a to Abbasid dynasty. Failed to resolve succession problem. Ruled 775-785 C.E. | 130 | |
| 126641617 | Harun al-Rashid | most famous and enduring Abbasid caliph who ruled 786-809 | 131 | |
| 126641618 | Buyids | Regional splinter dynasty of the mid 10th century; invaded and captured Baghdad. Ruled Abbasid Empire under name sultan. Retained Abbasids as figureheads. Replaced by Seljuk Turks. | 132 | |
| 126641619 | Seljuk Turks | Nomadic invaders from central Asia via Persia. Staunch Sunnis. Ruled in name of Abbasid caliphs from mid 11th century | 133 | |
| 126641620 | Ottoman Empire | Turk Empire established in Asia Minor and eventually extending throughout Middle East. Responsible for conquest of Constantinople and end of Byzantine Empire in 1453. Succeeded Seljuk Turks following the retreat of the Mongols. | 134 | |
| 126641621 | Crusades | series of military adventures initially launched by western Christians to free the Holy Land from the Muslims; temporarily succeeded in capturing Jerusalem and establishing Christian kingdoms. Later used for other purposes like commercial wars and extermination of heresies. | 135 | |
| 126641622 | Saladin | Muslim leader in last decades of the 12th century. Reconquered most of the Crusader outposts for Islam. | 136 | |
| 126641623 | Shah-Nama | written by Firdawsi in the late 10th century and early 11th centuries. Relates his story of Persia from creation to Islamic conquests. Known as Book of Kings. | 137 | |
| 126641624 | al-Ghazali | Brilliant Islamic theologian; struggled to fuse Greek and Quranic traditions. Not entirely accepted by Ulama. Ideas rejected by Orthodox scholars. | 138 | |
| 126641625 | Mongols | central Asian nomadic peoples; smashed Turko-Persian kingdoms. Captured Baghdad in 1258 and killed the last Abbasid caliph. | 139 | |
| 126641626 | Chinggis Khan | Born in 1170s in decades following the death of Kabul Khan; elected Khagan of all Mongol tribes in 1206. Responsible for conquest of northern kingdoms of China, territories as far west as the Abbasid regions. Died in 1227 prior to conquest of most of the Islamic world. | 140 | |
| 126641627 | Hulegu | Ruler of Ilkan Khanate; grandson of Chinggis Khan. Responsible for capture and destruction of Baghdad. | 141 | |
| 126641628 | Mamluks | Muslim slave warriors. They established a dynasty in Egypt and defeated the Mongols at Ain Jalut in 1260 which halted Mongol advance. | 142 | |
| 126641629 | Muhammad ibn Qasim | Aram general who conquered Sind in India. Declared that region and the Indus River Valley to be part of the Umayyad Empire. | 143 | |
| 126641630 | Mahmud of Ghazni | Third ruler of Turkish slave dynasty in Afghanistan. Led invasions of northern India. Credited with sacking one of the wealthiest of Hindu temples in northern India. Gave Muslims reputation for intolerance and aggression. | 144 | |
| 126641631 | Muhammad of Ghur | Military commander of Persian extraction who ruled a small mountain kingdom in Afghanistan. Began process of conquest to establish Muslim political control of northern India; brought much of Indus River Valley, Sind, and Northwest India under his control | 145 | |
| 126641632 | Bhaktic cults | Hindu groups dedicated to gods and goddesses who was the object of their veneration. Most widely worshipped gods were Shiva and Vishnu. | 146 | |
| 126641633 | Malacca | Portugese factory or fortified trade town located on the tip of the Malayan peninsula. Traditionally a center for trade among the Southeastern Asian islands. | 147 | |
| 126641634 | Demak | Most powerful of the trading states on the north coast of Java. Converted to Islam and served as a point of dissemination to other ports. | 148 | |
| 126641635 | Stateless societies | societies organized around kinship or other forms of obligations and lacking concentration of political power and authority that is normal of the state. | 149 | |
| 126641636 | Ifriqiya | also known as Tunisia. Romans called it Africa. Arab word for Eastern north Africa | 150 | |
| 126641637 | Maghrib | Arab word for western north Africa | 151 | |
| 126641638 | Almoravids | followers of great Puritanical reformist movement. Moved south and west into Spain | 152 | |
| 126641639 | Almohadis | followers of great Puritanical reformist movement. Moved into the sub-Sahara | 153 | |
| 126641640 | Sahel | extensive grassland belt at the southern edge of the Sahara. Point of exchange between forests to north and south of Africa | 154 | |
| 126641641 | Sudanic States | states before Ghana. Often had patriarch or council of elders from a certain family as leasers. Had territorial areas of people with similar cultural backgrounds. Also were the conquest states. Ex. Ghana, Mali, Songhay. | 155 | |
| 126641642 | Mali | empire centered between Sengel and Nigel Rivers. Creation of Manlinke people. Old forms of kingship were reinforced by Islam. Rulers built mosques, attended prayers, and supported preachers to help out Islam. Economic base was agriculture. | 156 | |
| 126641643 | Juula | manlinke merchants within the Mali empire that formed small partnerships and groups to carry out trade. | 157 | |
| 126641644 | Sundiata | Brilliant leader whose exploits were celebrated in an oral tradition. Created the beginning of the Mali Empire | 158 | |
| 126641645 | Timbuktu | port city located off a flood plain in the great bend of the Niger River. Had populations of 50,000 near the 14th century. Had Sankore mosque and library for scholars, jurists, and Muslim theologians to study. Book trade most lucrative business. | 159 | |
| 126641646 | Songhay | Dominated Middle areas of the Niger Valley. Made up of "masters of the soil" (farmers) and "masters of the water" (fishermen). Began to form as independent kingdom with capital at Gao on Niger River | 160 | |
| 126641647 | Muhammad the Great | extended boundaries of Songhay Empire; Islamic ruler of mid 16th century. | 161 | |
| 126641648 | Sharia | Arab word for Islamic law | 162 | |
| 126641649 | Nok | had culture featuring highly developed art style flourishing between 500 B.C.E. and 200 C.E.; located in forests of central Nigeria. | 163 | |
| 126641650 | Yoruba States | city states developed in Northern Nigeria c. 1200 C.E. Ile-Ife featured artistic style possibly related to earlier Nok culture. Agricultural societies supported by peasantry and dominated by ruling family and aristocracy | 164 | |
| 126641651 | Benin | city state formed in 14th century. Control extended from the Niger River coast to the coast near modern Lagos. City of great populations and broad avenues. | 165 | |
| 126641652 | Kongo | kingdom based on agriculture; formed on lower Congo River by the late 15th century. Capital at Mbanza Kongo; ruled by hereditary monarchy. | 166 | |
| 126641653 | Great Zimbabwe | had religious importance; associated with the bird of God. Now found on ruins of the Great Zimbabwe. Served as a link between the world and spirits. | 167 | |
| 126641654 | Hagia Sophia | domed church built in Constantinople during Justinian's reign. Wonder of the Christian world. | 168 | |
| 126641655 | Belisarius | important military commander of Justinian during the reconquest of western Europe. Commanded in North Africa and Italy | 169 | |
| 126641656 | Greek Fire | Byzantine weapon made up of a mixture of chemicals that ignited with water contact. Utilized to drive back Arab fleets that were attacking Constantinople. | 170 | |
| 126641657 | Rurik | Native of Denmark; first prince named under Kievan Rus'. Landed aristocrats to the new monarchy. | 171 | |
| 126641658 | Basil II | known as Bulgaroktonos (slayer of the Bulgarians). Bribed Bulgarian nobles and generals and defeated the Bulgarian army in 1014. | 172 | |
| 126641659 | Bulgaria | Slavic kingdom established in northern portions of the Balkan peninsula. Constant source of pressure on the Byzantine Empire. Defeated in 1014 by Basil II | 173 | |
| 126641660 | Cyril and Methodius | missionaries sent to modern Czech and Slovak Republics. Failed at first; invented script language known as Cyrillic. Converted South Russia and the Balkans to Orthodox Christianity. | 174 | |
| 126641661 | Kievan Rus' | Monarchy that marked the beginning of Russia. Spoke old East Slavic and followed Orthodox Christianity. Founded by Ease Slavic tribes and Scandinavian traders. | 175 | |
| 126641662 | Kiev | Trade city in southern Russia established by Scandinavian traders in 9th century. Focal point of the Kingdom of Russia. Flourished into the 12th century. | 176 | |
| 126641663 | Vladimir I | descendent of Rurik; converted to Christianity on behalf of all his people. | 177 | |
| 126641664 | Russian Orthodox | Russian form of Christianity from Byzantine Empire and combined with local religion. The king controlled major appointments. | 178 | |
| 126641665 | Yaroslav | last of great Kievan monarchs; issued legal codification based on formal codes developed in Byzantium. | 179 | |
| 126641666 | Boyars | name for Russian aristocrats. Had less political power than their counterparts in western Europe. | 180 | |
| 126641667 | Tatars | Name is Russian tradition for feared or despised invaders. They controlled most of Russia for over two centuries. | 181 |
