| 10301776271 | accidental condition | an element that helps to explain what's being defined but isn't essential to it. An accidental condition in defining a bird might be "ability to fly" because most, but not all, birds can fly. | | 0 |
| 10301776272 | ad hominem argument | a fallacy of argument in which a writer's claim is answered by irrelevant attacks on his or her character. | | 1 |
| 10301776273 | analogy | an extended comparison between something unfamiliar and something more familiar for the purpose of illuminating or dramatizing the unfamiliar. Ex: An analogy might say compare nuclear fission (less familiar) to a pool player's opening break (more familiar). | | 2 |
| 10301776274 | anaphora | a figure of speech involving repetition, particularly of the same word at the beginning of several clauses. | | 3 |
| 10301776275 | antithesis | the use of parallel structures to call attention to contrasts or opposites, as in Some like it hot; some like it cold. | | 4 |
| 10301776276 | antonomasia | use of a title, epithet, or description in place of a name, as in 'Your Honor' for Judge. | | 5 |
| 10301776277 | argument | (1) a spoken, written or visual text that expresses a point of view; (2) the use of evidence and reason to discover some version of the truth, as distinct form persuasion, the attempt to change someone else's point of view. | | 6 |
| 10301776278 | artistic appeal | support for an argument that a writer creates based on principles of reason and shared knowledge rather than on facts and evidence. | | 7 |
| 10301776279 | assumption | a belief regarded as true, upon which other claims are based. | | 8 |
| 10301776280 | assumption, cultural | a belief regarded as true or commonsensical within a particular culture, such as the belief in individual freedom in American culture. | | 9 |
| 10301776281 | audience | the person or persons to whom the argument is directed. | | 10 |
| 10301776282 | authority | the quality conveyed by a writer who is knowledgeable about his or her subject and confident in that knowledge. | | 11 |
| 10301776283 | background | the information a writer provides to create the context for an argument | | 12 |
| 10301776284 | backing | in Toulmin argument, the evidence provided to support a warrant. | | 13 |
| 10301776285 | bandwagon appeal | a fallacy of argument in which a course of action is recommended on the grounds that everyone else is following it. | | 14 |
| 10301776286 | begging the question | a fallacy of argument in which a claim is based on the very grounds that are in doubt or dispute. | | 15 |
| 10301776287 | causal argument | an argument that seeks to explain the effect(s) of a cause, the cause(s) of an effect, or a causal chain in which A causes B, B causes C, C causes D, and so on. | | 16 |
| 10301776288 | ceremonial argument | an argument that deals with current values and addresses questions of praise and blame. Also called 'epideictic', ceremonial arguments include eulogies and graduation speeches. | | 17 |
| 10301776289 | character, appeal based on | a strategy in which a writer presents an authoritative or credible self-image to dispose an audience to accept a claim. | | 18 |
| 10301776290 | claim | a statement that asserts a belief or truth. In arguments, most claims require supporting evidence. The claim is a key component in Toulmin argument. | | 19 |
| 10301776291 | connotation | the suggestion or associations that surround most words and extend beyond their literal meaning, creating associational effects. Slender and skinny have similar meanings ,for example, but carry different connotations, the former more positive than the later. | | 20 |
| 10301776292 | context | the entire situation in which a piece of writing takes place, including the writer's purpose(s) for writing, the intended audience; time and place of writing; the institutional, social, personal and other influences on the piece of writing; the material conditions of writing (whether it's online or on paper, in handwriting or print); and writer's attitude toward subject and the audience. | | 21 |
| 10301776293 | conviction | the belief that a claim or course of action is true or reasonable. In a proposal argument, a writer must move an audience beyond conviction to action. | | 22 |
| 10301776294 | credibility | an impression of integrity, honesty, and trustworthiness conveyed by a writer in an argument. | | 23 |
| 10301776295 | criterion | in evaluative arguments, the standard by which something is measured to determine its quality or value. | | 24 |
| 10301776296 | definition, argument of | an argument in which the claim specifies that something does or doesn't meet the conditions or features set forth in a definition. | | 25 |
| 10301776297 | deliberative argument | an argument that deals with action to be taken in the future, focusing on matters of policy. Deliberative arguments include parliamentary debates and campaign platforms. | | 26 |
| 10301776298 | delivery | the presentation of a spoken argument | | 27 |
| 10301776299 | dogmatism | a fallacy of argument in which a claim is supported on the grounds that it is the only conclusion acceptable within a given community. | | 28 |
| 10301776300 | either-or-choice | a fallacy of argument in which a complicated issue is misrepresented as offering only two possible alternatives, one of which is often made to seem vastly preferable to the other | | 29 |
| 10301776301 | emotional appeal | a strategy in which a writer tries to generate specific emotions (such as fear, envy, anger or pity) in an audience to dispose it to accept a claim. | | 30 |
| 10301776302 | enthymeme | in Toulmin argument, a statement that links a claim to a supporting reason. In classical rhetoric, an enthymeme is a syllogism with one term understood but not stated. | | 31 |
| 10301776303 | epideictic argument | see ceremonial argument | | 32 |
| 10301776304 | equivocation | a fallacy of argument in which a lie is given the appearance of truth, or in which the truth is misrepresented in deceptive language. | | 33 |
| 10301776305 | essential condition | an element that must be part of the definition but, by itself, isn't enough to define the term. An essential condition in defining a bird might be "winged": all birds have wings, yet wings alone don't define a bird since some insects and mammals also have wings. | | 34 |
| 10301776306 | ethical appeal | see character, appeal based on and ethos. | | 35 |
| 10301776307 | ethnographic observation | a form of field research involving close and extended observation of a group, event or phenomenon; careful and detailed note-taking during the observation; analysis of notes; and interpretation of that analysis. | | 36 |
| 10301776308 | ethos | the self-image a writer creates to define a relationship with readers. In arguments, most writers try to establish an ethos that suggests authority and credibility. | | 37 |
| 10301776309 | evaluation, argument of | an argument in which the claim specifies that something does or doesn't meet established criteria. | | 38 |
| 10301776310 | evidence | material offered to support an argument. | | 39 |
| 10301776311 | example, definition by | a definition that operates by identifying individual examples of what's being defined: sports car- corvette, viper, miata | | 40 |
| 10301776312 | experimental evidence | evidence gathered through experimentation; often evidence that can be qualified. It is frequently crucial to to scientific arguments. | | 41 |
| 10301776313 | fact, argument of | an argument in which the claim can be proved or disapproved with specific evidence or testimony. | | 42 |
| 10301776314 | fallacy of argument | a flaw in the structure of an argument that renders its conclusions invalid or suspect. | | 43 |
| 10301776315 | false authority | a fallacy of argument in which a claim is based on the expertise of someone who lacks appropriate credentials. | | 44 |
| 10301776316 | faulty analogy | a fallacy of argument in which a comparison between two objects or concepts is inaccurate or inconsequential. | | 45 |
| 10301776317 | faulty causality | a fallacy of argument making the unwarranted assumption that because one event follows another, the first event causes the second. Also called post hoc, ergo propter hoc, it forms the basis of many superstitions. | | 46 |
| 10301776318 | firsthand evidence | data- including surveys, observations, personal interviews, etc.- collected and personally examined by the writer. | | 47 |
| 10301776319 | fisking | a term invented by Glenn Reynolds to describe a point-by-point refutation, usually online, of an argument that the writer finds inaccurate or rhetorically suspect. | | 48 |
| 10301776320 | flashpoint | a flaw in the structure of an argument that renders its conclusion invalid or suspect. | | 49 |
| 10301776321 | forensic argument | an argument that deals with actions that have occurred in the past. Sometimes called judicial arguments, it includes legal cases involving judgement of guilt or innocence. | | 50 |
| 10301776322 | formal definition | a definition that identifies something first by the general class to which it belongs (genus) and then by the characteristics that distinguish it from other members of that class (species). | | 51 |
| 10301776323 | genus | the general class to which an object or concept belongs. Ex: baseball is a sport, green is a color | | 52 |
| 10301776324 | grounds | in Toulmin argument, the evidence provided to support a claim or reason, or enthymeme. | | 53 |
| 10301776325 | hard evidence | support for an argument using facts, statistics, testimony or other evidence the writer finds. | | 54 |
| 10301776326 | hasty generalization | a fallacy of argument in which an inference is drawn from insufficient data. | | 55 |
| 10301776327 | hyperbole | use of overstatement for special effect. | | 56 |
| 10301776328 | hypothesis | an expectation for findings of one's research or the conclusion to one's argument. It must be tested against evidence, opposing arguments and so on. | | 57 |
| 10301776329 | immediate reason | the cause that leads directly to an effect, such as an automobile accident that results in an injury to the driver. | | 58 |
| 10301776330 | inartistic appeal | support for an argument using facts, statistics, eyewitness testimony, or other evidence the writer finds. | | 59 |
| 10301776331 | intended readers | the actual, real-life people whom a writer consciously wants to address a piece of writing. | | 60 |
| 10301776332 | invention | the process of finding and creating arguments to support a claim. | | 61 |
| 10301776333 | inverted word order | moving grammatical elements of a sentence out of their usual order (subject-verb-object/ compliment) for special effect, as in: Tired I was; sleepy I was not. | | 62 |
| 10301776334 | invitational argument | a term used by Sonja Foss to describe arguments that are aimed not at vanquishing an opponent but at inviting others to collaborate in exploring mutually satisfying ways to solve problems. | | 63 |
| 10301776335 | invoked readers | the readers directly addressed or implied in a text, which may include some that the writer didn't consciously intended to reach. An argument that refers to 'those who have experienced a major trauma', for example, invokes all readers who have undergone this experience. | | 64 |
| 10301776336 | irony | use of language that suggests a meaning in contrast to the literal meaning of the words. | | 65 |
| 10301776337 | line of argument | a strategy of approach used in an argument. Argumentative strategies include appeals to the heart (pathos/ emotional appeals), to character (ethical appeals), and to facts and reason (logical appeals). | | 66 |
| 10301776338 | logical appeal | a strategy in which a writer uses facts, evidence and reason to make audience members accept a claim. | | 67 |
| 10301776339 | metaphor | a figure of speech that makes a comparison, as in: 'The ship was a beacon of hope'. | | 68 |
| 10301776340 | moral equivalence | a fallacy of argument in which no distinction is made between serious issues, problems, or failings and much less important ones. | | 69 |
| 10301776341 | necessary reason | a cause that must be present for an effect to occur, for example, infection with a particular virus is a necessary reason for the development of AIDS. | | 70 |
| 10301776342 | non sequitur | a fallacy of argument in which claims, reasons, or warrants fail to connect logically; one point doesn't follow from another. | | 71 |
| 10301776343 | operational definition | a definition that identifies an object by what it does or by the conditions that creates it: 'A line is the shortest distance between two points'. | | 72 |
| 10301776344 | parallelism | use of similar grammatical structures or forms for pleasing effect: 'in the classroom, on the playground and at the mall'. | | 73 |
| 10301776345 | parody | a form of humor in which a writer transforms something familiar into a different form to make a comic point. | | 74 |
| 10301776346 | pathos, appeal to | See emotional appeal. | | 75 |
| 10301776347 | persuasion | the act of seeking to change someone else's point of view. | | 76 |
| 10301776348 | precedents | actions or decisions in the past that have established a pattern or model for subsequent actions. These are particularly important in legal cases. | | 77 |
| 10301776349 | premise | a statement or position regarded as true and upon which other claims are based. | | 78 |
| 10301776350 | propoganda | an argument advancing a point of view without regard to reason, fairness or truth. | | 79 |
| 10301776351 | proposal argument | an argument in which a claim is made in favor of or opposing a specific course of action: 'Sport utility vehicles should have to meet the same fuel economy standards as passenger cars'. | | 80 |
| 10301776352 | purpose | the goal of the argument. These include entertaining, informing, convincing, exploring and deciding among others. | | 81 |
| 10301776353 | qualifiers | words or phrases that limit the scope of a claim; usually; in a few cases; under these circumstances. | | 82 |
| 10301776354 | qualitative argument | an argument of evaluation that relies on nonnumerical criteria supported by reason, tradition, precedent or logic. | | 83 |
| 10301776355 | quantitative argument | an argument of evaluation that relies on criteria that can be measured, counted, or demonstrated objectively. | | 84 |
| 10301776356 | reason | in writing, a statement that expands a claim by offering evidence to support it. It may be a statement of fact or another claim. In Toulmin argument, it is attached to a claim by a warrant. | | 85 |
| 10301776357 | rebuttal | an answer that challenges or refutes a specific claim or charge. These may also be offered by writers who anticipate objections to the claims or evidence they offer. | | 86 |
| 10301776358 | rebuttal, conditions of | In Toulmin argument, potential objections to an argument. Writers need to anticipate such conditions in shaping their arguments. | | 87 |
| 10301776359 | reversed structure | a figure of speech that involves the inversion of clauses: 'What is good in your writing is not original; what is original is not good'. | | 88 |
| 10301776360 | rhetoric | the art of persuasion, western rhetoric originated in ancient Greece as a discipline to prepare citizens for arguing cases in court. | | 89 |
| 10301776361 | rhetorical analysis | an examination of how well the components of an argument work together to persuade or move an audience. | | 90 |
| 10301776362 | rhetorical questions | questions posed to raise an issue or create an effect rather than to get a response: You may well wonder, "What's in a name?". | | 91 |
| 10301776363 | Rogerian argument | an approach to argumentation that's based on the principle, articulated by psychotherapist Carl Rogers, that audiences respond best when they don't feel threatened. This argument stresses trust and urges those who disagree to find common ground. | | 92 |
| 10301776364 | satire | a form of humor in which a writer uses wit to expose- and possibly correct- human failings. | | 93 |
| 10301776365 | scare tactic | a fallacy of argument presenting an issue in terms of exaggerated threats or dangers. | | 94 |
| 10301776366 | scheme | a figure of speech that involves a special arrangement of words, such as inversion. | | 95 |
| 10301776367 | secondhand evidence | any information taken from outside sources, including library research and online sources. | | 96 |
| 10301776368 | sentimental appeal | a fallacy of argument in which an appeal is based on excessive emotion. | | 97 |
| 10301776369 | simile | a comparison that uses like or as. | | 98 |
| 10301776370 | slippery slope | a fallacy of argument exaggerating the possibility that a relatively inconsequential action or choice today will have a serious adverse consequences in the future. | | 99 |
| 10301776371 | species | the particular features that distinguish one member of a genus from another : (ex) Baseball is a sport (genus) played on a diamond by teams of nine players (species). | | 100 |
| 10301776372 | spin | a kind of political advocacy that makes any factor event, however unfavorable, serve a political purpose. | | 101 |
| 10301776373 | stance | the writer's attitude toward the topic and the audience. | | 102 |
| 10301776374 | stasis theory | in classical rhetoric, a method for coming up with appropriate arguments by determining the nature of a given situation: a question of fact; of definition; or of policy. | | 103 |
| 10301776375 | straw man | a fallacy of argument in which an opponent's position is misrepresented as being more extreme than it actually is, so that it's easier to refute. | | 104 |
| 10301776376 | sufficient condition | an element or set of elements adequate to define a term. In defining God, for example, might be "supreme being" or "first cause". No other conditions are necessary, though many might be made. | | 105 |
| 10301776377 | sufficient reason | a cause, that alone is enough to produce a particular effect; for example, a particular level of smoke in the air will set off a smoke alarm. | | 106 |
| 10301776378 | syllogism | a structure of deductive logic in which correctly formed major & minor premises lead to necessary conclusion. | | 107 |
| 10301776379 | testimony | a personal experience or observation used to support an argument. | | 108 |
| 10301776380 | thesis | a sentence that sufficiently states a writer's main point. | | 109 |
| 10301776381 | Toulmin argument | a method of informal logic first described by Stephen Toulmin in 'The Uses of Argument' (1958). Toulmin argument describes the key components of an argument as the claim, reason, warrant, backing and grounds. | | 110 |
| 10301776382 | trope | a figure of speech that involves a change in the usual meaning or signification of words such as metaphor, simile and analogy. | | 111 |
| 10301776383 | understatement | a figure of speech that makes a weaker statement than a situation seems to call for. It can lead to powerful or to humorous effects. | | 112 |
| 10301776384 | values, appeals to | a strategy in which a writer invokes shared principles and traditions of a society as a reason for accepting a claim. | | 113 |
| 10301776385 | warrant | in Toulmin argument, the statement (expressed or implied) that establishes the logical connection between a claim and its supporting reason. | | 114 |
