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AP Psychology - Cognition - Memory Flashcards

All terms from Myers Psychology for AP (BFW Worth, 2011)

6643647606	memory	the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information.	0
6643647607	encoding	the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.	1
6643647608	storage	the retention of encoded information over time.	2
6643647609	retrieval	the process of getting information out of memory storage.	3
6643647610	sensory memory	the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.	4
6643647611	short-term memory	activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten.	5
6643647612	long-term memory	the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.	6
6643647613	working memory	a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.	7
6643647614	parallel processing	the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.	8
6643647615	automatic processing	unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings.	9
6643647616	effortful processing	encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.	10
6643647617	rehearsal	the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage.	11
6643647618	spacing effect	the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.	12
6643647619	serial position effect	our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list.	13
6643647620	visual encoding	the encoding of picture images.	14
6643647621	acoustic encoding	the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words.	15
6643647622	semantic encoding	the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words.	16
6643647623	imagery	mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding.	17
6643647624	mnemonics	memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.	18
6643647625	chunking	organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.	19
6643647626	iconic memory	a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.	20
6643647627	echoic memory	A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.	21
6643647628	long-term potentiation (LTP)	an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.	22
6643647629	flashbulb memory	a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.	23
6643647630	amnesia	the loss of memory.	24
6643647631	implicit memory	retention independent of conscious recollection. (Also called non-declarative or procedural memory.)	25
6643647632	explicit memory	memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare." (Also called declarative memory.)	26
6643647633	hippocampus	a neural center that is located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage.	27
6643647634	recall	a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.	28
6643647635	recognition	a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test.	29
6643647636	relearning	a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time.	30
6643647637	priming	the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response.	31
6643647638	déjà vu	that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.	32
6643647639	mood-congruent memory	the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood.	33
6643647640	proactive interference	the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information.	34
6643647641	retroactive interference	the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information.	35
6643647642	repression	in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.	36
6643647643	misinformation effect	incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event.	37
6643647644	source amnesia	attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. (Also called source misattribution.) Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories.	38
6643647645	serial processing	occurs when the brain computes information step-by-step in a methodical and linear matter	39

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Cell Respiration - AP Biology Flashcards

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6275105689	Cellular Respiration	The process by which cells produce energy (ATP) C6H12O6 + 6O2 --> 6 CO2 + 6H2O + energy (oxidative process)	0
6275105690	ATP	Consists of adenosine plus 3 phosphates; source of immediate energy (know this structure)	1
6275105691	Glycolysis	Anaerobic phase of cellular respiration that breaks down glucose into 2 molecules of pyruvate - Occurs in cytoplasm - Makes 2 Net ATP molecules and 2 molecules of NADH	2
6275105692	Fermentation	A process that produces a small amount of energy in the absence of oxygen - Begins with glycolysis and produces 2 molecules of pyruvate and then alcohol or lactic acid - Converts NADH to NAD+ by transferring electrons to pyruvate	3
6275105693	Aerobic Respiration	Consists of Krebs cycle and electron transport chain (ETC) and oxidative phosphorylation - Requires oxygen - Occurs after the anaerobic respiration - Produces 34 ATP - Occurs in the mitochondria	4
6275105694	Citric Acid Cycle	Synonym for Krebs Cycle	5
6275105695	Anaerobic Respiration	Synonym for fermentation	6
6275105696	Aerobic	With oxygen	7
6275105697	Anaerobic	Without oxygen	8
6275105698	Krebs cycle	Uses 2 acetyl co-A to produces 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, and 2 ATP and CO2 as waste - Occurs in the mitochondrial inner matrix - Part of aerobic respiration - Turns twice for each molecule of glucose (also known as Citric Acid Cycle)	9
6275105699	Acetyl co-A	coenzyme combined with pyruvate created in middle step; raw material of Krebs cycle	10
6275105700	ATP synthase	An enzyme that produces ATP as protons (H+) flow down a gradient through chemiosmosis or oxidative phosphorylation	11
6275105701	Electron Transport Chain	Energy-coupling reaction that creates H+ gradient in the membrane necessary for the production of ATP through chemiosmosis or oxidative phosphorylation - Energy released from the exergonic flow of electrons is used to pump protons across the membrane to create a proton gradient - Electrons flow down the chain from one carrier molecule to the next in a series of redox reactions - The final hydrogen (H+) acceptor in the chain is oxygen (H2+1/2O2 --> H2O) / Water is the waste product and is exhaled	12
6275105702	Oxygen	Final electron acceptor in the ETC	13
6275105703	Water	Waste product created by at the end of the ETC	14
6275105704	Chemiosmosis	A process by which ATP is formed as protons flow down a proton gradient through the ATP synthase complex (chemical + ...)	15
6275105705	Substrate-Level Phosphorylation	Process that produces a small amount of ATP during glycolysis and the Krebs cycle During this process, the enzyme kinase transfers a phosphate from a susbtrate directly to ADP, forming ATP	16
6275105706	Oxidative Phosphorylation	The production of ATP using energy from the electron transport chain. Ends with the production of water.	17
6275105707	NADH	Primary electron transporter to the ETC from glycolysis and Krebs cycle	18
6275105708	FADH2	Secondary electron transporter to the ETC from Krebs cycle, entering at lower energy levels than NADH	19
6275105709	NAD+	Oxidized form of NADH	20
6275105710	FAD	Oxidized form of FADH2	21
6275105711	Redox Reactions	Reduction and oxidation	22
6275105712	Reduction	gain of electrons; gain of hydrogen -> for storing energy	23
6275105713	Oxidation	loss of electrons; loss of hydrogen -> for releasing energy	24
6275105714	Cytochromes	Proteins that help make up the ETC; transport electrons	25
6275105715	Inner-membrane space	Mitochondrial part where the ETC pumps protons	26
6275105716	Matrix	Site of Krebs cycle in mitochondria	27
6275105717	Cristae membrane	site of ETC and ATP synthase complex - contains thousands of copies of the ETC - impermeable to protons (H+) - folds of the mitochondrial inner membrane	28

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AP Psychology - Motivation & Emotion Flashcards

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7017987834	motivation	the process by which activities are started, directed, and continued so that physical or psychological needs or wants are met.	0
7017987835	extrinsic motivation	type of motivation in which a person performs an action because it leads to an outcome that is separate from or external to the person.	1
7017987836	intrinsic motivation	type of motivation in which a person performs an action because the act itself is rewarding or satisfying in some internal manner.	2
7017987837	instincts	the biologically determined and innate patterns of behavior that exist in both people and animals.	3
7017987838	instinct approach	approach to motivation that assumes people are governed by insticts similar to those of animals.	4
7017987839	need	a requirement of some material (such as food or water) that is essential for survival of the organism	5
7017987840	drive	a psychological tension and physical arousal arising when there is a need that motivates the organism to act in order to fulfill the need and reduce the tension	6
7017987841	drive-reduction theory	approach to motivation that assumes behavior arises from physiological needs that cause internal drives to push the organism to satisfy the need and reduce tension and arousal	7
7017987842	primary drives	those drives that involve needs of the body such as hunger and thirst	8
7017987843	acquired (secondary) drives	those drives that are learned through experience or conditioning, such as the need for money or social approval	9
7017987844	homeostasis	the tendency of the body to maintain a steady state	10
7017987845	stimulus motive	a motive that appears to be unlearned but causes an increase in stimulation, such as curiosity	11
7017987846	arousal theory	theory of motivation in which people are said to have an optimal (best or ideal) level of tension that they seek to maintain by increasing or decreasing stimulation	12
7017987847	Yerkes-Dodson law	law stating performance is related to arousal; moderate levels or arousal lead to better performance than do levels of arousal that are too low or too high. This effect varies with the difficulty of the task: Easy tasks require a high-moderate level whereas more difficult tasks require a low-moderate level	13
7017987848	incentives	things that attract or lure people into action	14
7017987849	incentive approaches	theories of motivation in which behavior is explained as a response to the external stimulus and its rewarding properties	15
7017987850	self-actualization	according to Maslow, the point that is seldom reached at which people have sufficiently satisfied the lower needs and achieved their full human potential	16
7017987851	weight set point	the particular level of weight the body tries to maintain	17
7017987852	basal metabolic rate (BMR)	the rate at which the body burns energy when the organism is resting	18
7017987853	leptin	a hormone that, when released into the bloodstream, signals the hypothalamus that the body has had enough food and reduces the appetite while increasing the feeling of being full	19
7017987854	anorexia nervosa	a condition in which a person reduces eating to the point that a weight loss of 15 percent below the ideal body weight or more occurs	20
7017987855	bulimia nervosa	a condition in which a person develops a cycle of "binging," or overeating enormous amounts of food at one sitting, and then using unhealthy methods to avoid weight gain	21
7017987856	emotion	the "feeling" aspect of consciousness, characterized by a certain physical arousal, a certain behavior that reveals the emotion to the outside world, and an inner awareness of feelings	22
7017987857	James-Lange theory of emotion	theory in which a physiological reaction leads to the labeling of an emotion. I am afraid because I am shaking	23
7017987858	Cannon-Bard theory of emotion	theory in which the physiological reaction and the emotion are assumed to occur at the same time. I am shaking and afraid at the same time	24
7017987859	Schachter's cognitive arousal theory/ Singer and Schachter's Two Factor	theory of emotion in which both the physical arousal and the labeling of that arousal based on cues from the environment must occur before the emotion is experienced. That huge bear is dangerous and that makes me feel afraid	25
7017987860	Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs	Humanist theory of motivation that says we must first fulfill lower level needs before achieving personal fulfillment and self actualization Physiological-Safety-Belongingness and Love-Esteem-Cognitive-Self Actualization	26
7017987861	ventromedial hypothalamus	stops the eating response; lets us know we are full if damaged, we would continue to eat	27
7017987862	lateral hypothamalus	initiates the eating response; lets us know we are hungry if damaged, we would starve	28
7017987863	Achievement motivation	a desire for significant accomplishment: for mastery of things, people, or ideas; for attaining a high standard	29
7017987864	Adaptation-Level Phenomenon	our tendency to form judgments (of sounds, of lights, of income) relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience	30
7017987865	Aerobic exercise	Rhythmic, nonstop, moderate to vigorous activity that requires large amounts of oxygen	31
7017987866	Behavioral medicine	an interdisciplinary field that integrates behavioral and medical knowledge and applies that knowledge to health and disease	32
7017987867	Binge-eating disorder	significant binge-eating episodes, followed by distress, disgust, or guilt, but without the compensatory purging, fasting, or excessive exercise that marks bulimia nervosa	33
7017987868	Biofeedback	a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension	34
7017987869	Catharsis	Emotional release	35
7017987870	Coping	alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods	36
7017987871	Coronary heart disease	the clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle; the leading cause of death in North America	37
7017987872	Emotion-focused coping	attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one's stress reaction	38
7017987873	Estrogen	Female sex hormone	39
7017987874	Feel-good, do-good phenomenon	The tendency to be helpful when in a good mood	40
7017987875	Flow	a completely involved, focused state of consciousness, with diminished awareness of self and time, resulting from optimal engagement of one's skills	41
7017987876	General adaptation syndrome (GAS)	A model of the body's response to chronic stress; the three phases are alarm (fight-or-flight response), resistance, and exhaustion.	42
7017987877	Glucose	A simple sugar that is an important source of energy.	43
7017987878	Health psychology	a subfield of psychology that provides psychology's contribution to behavioral medicine	44
7017987879	Industrial-organization (I/O) psychology	the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces	45
7017987880	Organizational psychology	a subfield of I/O psychology that examines organizational influences on worker satisfaction and productivity and facilitates organizational change	46
7017987881	Personnel psychology	a subfield of I/O psychology that focuses on employee recruitment, selection, placement, training, appraisal, and development	47
7017987882	Polygraph	a machine, commonly used in attempts to detect lies, that measures several of the physiological responses accompanying emotion	48
7017987883	Problem-focused coping	Attempting to alleviate stress directly by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor.	49
7017987884	Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI)	the study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting health	50
7017987885	Psychophysiological illness	literally, "mind-body" illness; any stress-related physical illness, such as hypertension and some headaches	51
7017987886	Refractory period	a resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm	52
7017987887	Relative deprivation	the perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself	53
7017987888	Sexual disorder	a problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or functioning	54
7017987889	Sexual orientation	an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation)	55
7017987890	Sexual response cycle	the four stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson - excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution	56
7017987891	Social leadership	group-oriented leadership that builds teamwork, mediates conflict, and offers support	57
7017987892	Stress	A nonspecific, emotional response to real or imagined challenges or threats; a result of a cognitive appraisal by the individual	58
7017987893	Structured interviews	interview process that asks the same job-relevant questions of all applicants, each of whom is rated on established scales	59
7017987894	Subjective well-being	self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life. Used along with measures of objective well-being (for example, physical and economic indicators) to evaluate people's quality of life.	60
7017987895	Task leadership	goal-oriented leadership that sets standards, organizes work, and focuses attention on goals	61
7017987896	Testosterone	Male sex hormone	62
7017987897	Type A	competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people	63
7017987898	Type B	easygoing, relaxed people	64

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AP- Biology - Enzymes Flashcards

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7848535770	chemical reaction	A process that changes one set of chemicals into another set of chemicals.	0
7848535771	reactants	compounds that enter into a chemical reaction	1
7848535772	product	compounds produced by a chemical reaction.	2
7848535773	enzyme	biological catalysts usually globular that speed up the rate of chemical reactions	3
7848535774	coenzyme	A non protein organic molecule serving to modify the active site of an enzyme before the reaction is allowed to occur. Most vitamins function important metabolic reactions in this role.	4
7848535775	Competitive inhibition	substance that resembles the normal substrate competes with the substrate for the active site	5
7848535776	Noncompetitive inhibitor	a chemical that binds to an enzyme but not in the active site. This chemical will change the shape of the enzyme (reversible)	6
7848535777	substrate	the substance an enzyme catalyzes, changes.	7
7848535778	active site	the location on the enzyme where the substrate binds and goes through a chemical reaction.	8
7848535779	exothermic reaction	a chemical reaction where energy is given off, so that the products have less energy than the reactants.	9
7848535780	endothermic reaction	a chemical reaction where energy is taken in, so that the products have more energy than the reactants.	10
7848535781	activation energy	Eₐ is the abbreviation used for the energy required to start a reaction.	11
7848535782	sucrase	An enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of sucrose into glucose and fructose	12
7848535783	Catalase	an enzyme found in most aerobic organisms that breaks down H2O2 to water and oxygen	13
7848535784	amylase	Enzyme that can break the bonds of starch to form the carbohydrate monomer, glucose.	14
7848535785	lipase	Enzyme that can break the bonds of lipids to form the monomer, fatty acids.	15
7848535786	protease	Enzyme that can break the polypeptide bonds of proteins to form the monomer, amino acids.	16
7848535787	nuclease	Enzyme that can break the bonds of nucleic acids to form monomer, nucleotides	17
7848535788	activated complex	the structure that is made up of the substrate bonded to the active site of the enzyme.	18
7848535789	lock and key hypothesis	The substrate fits the active site of the enzyme like a key fits in a lock. There is no change to the shape of the enzyme or substrate.	19
7848535790	induced fit hypothesis	The active site of the enzyme is flexible and conforms to fit the substrate like a glove fits on a hand.	20
7848535791	Denature	Characteristic of proteins; a change in shape that stops the protein from functioning.	21
7848535792	Allosteric	__________ regulation of enzyme occurs when a molecule binds to an enzyme changing the protein's shape	22
7848535793	Catalyst	______ an agent that speeds up a chemical reaction without itself being permanently altered	23
7848535794	G	An exergonic reaction releases free energy. The abbreviation for free energy is: Named after the American Scientist Josiah Gibbs	24
7848535795	Transition State	The less stable state that occurs and is usually a high-energy state between reactants and products in a chemical reaction	25
7848535796	Inducing Strain	The enzyme cause bonds in the substrate to stretch	26
7848535797	Substrate orientation	When Enzyme bring together specific atoms into a correct position that are otherwise rotating and tumbling so that bonds can form	27
7848535798	Side chain (R group)	the part of the enzyme that can add H+ ions to or from substrate destabilizing covalent bonds	28
7848535799	Metal	__________ ions such as Copper, Zinc iron bind to certain enzymes to initiated chemical reactions.	29
7848535800	Heme	Organic molecules with iron an iron cofactor (A Prosthetic Group) that are permanently bond to enzyme responsible Oxygen transport	30
7848535801	Irreversible Inhibition	When an enzyme inhibitor that covalently binds to the amino acid side chain at the active site of an enzyme it is called _______________	31
7848535802	Reversible Inhibition	When an enzyme inhibitor binds is similar to the substate and non-covalently bind to the active site and there slows down the enzyme	32
7848535803	Protein Kinases	enzymes that reversibly activate or inactivate other proteins by adding phosphate groups to (phosphorylating) them	33
7848535804	Activator	A non-covalent binding regulator that can cause an enzyme to change shape and expose and expose an otherwise unexposed active site in allosteric regulation	34
7848535805	Shape	in Biology the prefix allo means "different" and stereos means "__________"	35
7848535806	Hydrogen	The specificity and activity of an enzyme depends on it 3D structure and this in turn depends on ______________ bonds	36
7848535807	hydrophobic	Changes in H+ ions (acidity) concentration can alter how _____________ some regions of protein are.	37
7848535808	pH	After looking at the graph the enzyme activity of the the three different enzymes is being regulated by what variable	38
7848535809	Temperature	After looking at the shape of graph the enzyme activity of this enzymes is being regulated by what variable:	39
7848535810	Substrate Concentration	After looking at the shape of graph the enzyme activity of this enzymes is being regulated by what variable:	40

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AP Biology Evolution Flashcards

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5860795882	homologous structures	structures in different species that are similar because of common ancestry	0
5860795883	vestigial structures	remnants of features that served important functions in the the organism's ancestors	1
5860795884	convergent evolution	the independent evolution of similar features in different lineages	2
5860795885	Hardy-Weinberg	the frequencies of alleles and genotypes in a population will remain constant from generation to generation, provided that only Mendelian segregation and recombination of alleles are at work	3
5860795886	gene pool	the aggregate of all of the alleles for all of the loci in individuals in a population	4
5860795887	population	a group of individuals of the same species that live in the same area and interbreed, producing fertile offspring	5
5860795888	natural selection	a process in which organisms with certain inherited characteristics are more likely to survive and reproduce than are organisms with other characteristics	6
5860795889	genetic drift	changes in the gene pool due to random events	7
5860795890	founder effect	when a individuals become isolated from a larger population, this smaller group may establish a new population whose gene pool differs from the source population	8
5860795891	bottleneck effect	when there is a severe drop in population size, certain alleles may be overrepresented among the survivors, others may be underrepresented, and some may be absent altogether	9
5860795892	gene flow	the transfer of alleles into or out of a population due to the movement of fertile individuals or their gametes	10
5860795893	directional selection	when conditions favor individuals exhibiting one extreme of a phenotypic range, thereby shifting the frequency curve for the phenotypic character in one direction or the other	11
5860795894	disruptive selection	when conditions favor individuals at both extremes of a phenotypic range over individuals with intermediate phenotypes	12
5860795895	stabilizing selection	acts against both extreme phenotypes and favors intermediate variants	13
5860795896	sexual selection	a form of natural selection in which individuals with certain inherited characteristics are more likely than other individuals to obtain mates	14
5860795897	sexual dimorphism	marked differences between the two sexes in secondary sexual characteristics, which are not directly associated with reproduction or survival (differences in size, color, ornamentation, and behavior)	15
5860795898	diploidy	the state of being diploid, that is having two sets of chromosomes	16
5860795899	heterozygote advantage	when individuals who are heterozygous at a particular locus have greater fitness than do both kind of homozygous	17
5860795900	frequency-dependent selection	fitness of a phenotype declines if it becomes too common in the population	18
5860795901	speciation	the process by which one species splits into two or more species	19
5860795902	microevolution	changes over time in allele frequencies in a population	20
5860795903	macroevolution	the broad pattern of evolution over long time spans	21
5860795904	species	a group of populations whose members have the potential to interbreed in nature and produce viable, fertile offspring- but do not produce viable, fertile offspring with members of other such groups	22
5860795905	reproductive isolation	the existance of biological barriers that impede members of two species from producing viable offspring	23
5860795906	hybrids	offspring that result from interspecific mating	24
5860795907	prezygotic barriers	impede mating or hinder fertilization if mating occurs (five types: habitat, temporal, behavioral, mechanical, gametic)	25
5860795908	post zygotic barriers	prevents hybrid zygote from developing into a viable fertile adult through reducing hybrid viability, reducing hybrid fertility, or hybrid breakdown	26
5860795909	allopatric speciation	gene flow is interrupted when a population is divided into geographically isolated subpopulations	27
5860795910	sympatric speciation	speciation occurs in populations that live in the same geographic area (usually occurs due to polyploidy, habitat differentiation, and sexual selection)	28
5860795911	polyploidy	extra sets of chromosomes due to accidents during cell division	29
5860795912	autopolyploid	an individual that has more than two chromosome sets that are all derived from a single species	30
5860795913	allopolyploid	an individual that has more than two chromosome sets due to two different species interbreeding and after several generations can change a sterile hybrid into a fertile polyploid. Allopolyploids are fertile when mating with each other but cannot interbreed with either parent species	31
5860795914	punctuated equilibrium	the theory that in the evolution there are long periods of little morphological change punctuated by relatively short periods of significant change	32
5860795915	ribozyme	RNA that can also carry out a number of enzyme-like catalytic functions	33
5860795916	protobionts	collections of abiotically produced molecules surrounded by a membrane-like structure with simple chemical reactions (precursor of prokaryotic cells)	34
5860795917	endosymbiosis	mitochondria and chloroplasts were formally small prokaryotes that began living within larger cells	35
5860795918	adaptive radiation	Period of evolutionary change in which groups of organisms form many new species whose adaptations allow them to fill vacant ecological roles in their communities	36
5860795919	homeotic genes	master regulatory genes that determine such basic features as where a pair of wings and a pair of legs will develop on a bird or how a plant's flower parts are arranged	37
5860795920	phylogeny	the evolutionary history of a species or group of species	38
5860795921	systematics	study and classification of biodiversity and determining their evolutionary relationships	39
5860795922	phylogenetic tree	evolutionary history of a group of organisms represented in a branching diagram	40
5860795923	analogy	similarity due to convergent evolution	41
5860795924	homology	similarity due to shared ancestry	42
5860795925	clade	a group of species which includes an ancestral species and all of its descendants	43
5860795926	outgroup	a species or group of species from an evolutionary lineage that is known to have diverged before the lineage that includes the species we are studying	44
5860795927	maximum parsimony	a principle that states that when considering multiple explanations for an observation, one should first investigate the simplest explanation that is consistent with the facts	45
5860795928	molecular clock	a yardstick for measuring the absolute time of evolutionary change based on the observation that some genes and other regions of genomes appear to evolve at constant rates	46
5860795929	horizontal gene transfer	a process in which genes are transferred from one genome to another through mechanisms such as exchange of transposable elements and plasmids, viral infection and perhaps fusion of organisms	47
5860795930	Darwin's Theory (five parts)	1. Variation 2. Overproduction 3. Competition 4. Survival of the fittest 5. Overtime, emergence of new species (new alleles)	48
5861142922	Cryptic species	Species which look almost identical but that are very different in other traits	49
5861158564	Monophyletic	A branch on a phylogenetic tree that contains all decscendants of a common ancestor	50
5861181945	Abiogenesis	origin of life from nonliving matter	51
5861186853	abiotic synthesis	formation of organic molecules from inorganic material	52
5861198293	last universal common ancestor (LUCA)	a common ancestor to all organisms that live and had lived on Earth	53
5861207699	protocell	organic polymers enclosed in a membrane	54
5861213527	ozone shield	protect organisms from harmful UV rays	55
5861219781	geologic timescale	division of the history of Earth into eras, periods and epochs	56
5861227824	extinction	total disappearance of all members of a species	57
5861233770	mass extinction	total disappearance of a large number a species within a few million years	58
5861241201	extant	still in existance	59
5861296530	fitness	ability to produce surviving offspring	60
5861310526	morphological species concept	new species differ by physical characteristics known as diagnostic traits	61
5861321312	evolutionary species concept	members of a species share distinct evolutionary pathway and common traits	62
5861330965	phylogenetic species concept	a family tree is used to identify species based on a common ancestor	63
5861339799	biological species concept	species are identified as separate because of reproductive isolation.	64
5861362122	plate tectonics	branch of geology which follows the movement of pieces of Earth's crust which float on a lower, hot mantle layer	65
5861376591	continental drift	change over time of the positions of the continents	66
5861408409	fossil	remains and traces of evidence of past life	67
5861418334	paleontology	study of the fossil record	68
5861437022	index fossils	fossils used to identify deposits made at apparently the same time in different parts of the world, used for relative dating	69
5861455654	absolute dating	relies on radiometric dating to assign an age to a fossil	70

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AP Biology: DNA Replication Flashcards

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5927361821	Replication Bubble	Oval opening in DNA, spreads outward in both directions. Replication starts in the middle of a DNA strand, not at the ends!	0
5927361822	Replication Fork	A Y-shaped region were the new strands of DNA are elongating during DNA replication.	1
5927361823	nucleotide triphosphates	building blocks needed to make new strands of DNA; provide energy for DNA replication by the hydrolysis of bonds between phosphates	2
5927361825	Helicase	An enzyme that untwists the double helix at the replication forks, separating the two parental strands and making them available as template strands.	3
5927361826	Single-Stranded Binding Proteins	Protein that coats single-stranded segments of DNA, stabilizing the DNA so it won't reanneal	4
5927361828	DNA Polymerase III	An enzyme that catalyzes the elongation of new DNA at a replication fork by the addition of nucleotides to the existing chain. Can only read 3' to 5' and build new strands 5' to 3'.	5
5927361830	Lagging Strand	A discontinuously synthesized DNA strand, built in the direction opposite of the replication fork. Must be built in pieces	6
5927361831	Leading Strand	The new continuous complementary DNA strand synthesized along the template strand in the mandatory 5' to 3' direction.	7
5927361832	Okazaki Fragments	Small fragments of DNA produced on the lagging strand during DNA replication, joined later by DNA ligase to form a complete strand.	8
5927361833	Ligase	An enzyme that connects two fragments of DNA to make a single fragment	9
5927361835	Primase	An enzyme that joins RNA nucleotides to make the primer using the parental DNA strand as a template. Serves as starter sequence for DNA Polymerase III, which will add on the complementary bases.	10
5927361836	DNA Polymerase I	Removes sections of RNA primer and replaces them with DNA nucleotides. Can still only build onto 3' end of an existing DNA strand.	11
5927361837	Telomerase	An enzyme that catalyzes the lengthening of telomeres. The enzyme includes a molecule of RNA that serves as a template for new telomere segments.	12
5927386977	topoisomerase	Enzyme that functions in DNA replication, helping to relieve strain in the double helix ahead of the replication fork.	13
5927388090	DNA polymerase II	an enzyme has a 3'-5' exonuclease activity for proofreading	14
5927394648	telomere	A specialized region at the ends of eukaryotic chromosmes that contains several repeats of a particular DNA sequence. In cells that lack telomerase, the telomeres slowly shorten with each round of DNA replication; this is thought to contribute to the eventual death of the cell.	15
5927402720	origin of replication	The specific location on a DNA strand where replication begins.. Prokaryotes have one, while eukaryotes have several per chromosome.	16
5927411563	RNA primer	strand of short nucleic acid sequences (generally about 10 base pairs) that serves as a starting point for DNA synthesis. It is required for DNA replication because the enzymes that catalyze this process, DNA polymerases, can only add new nucleotides to an existing strand of nucleic acid.	17

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AP psychology chapter 5 Flashcards

States of Consciousness

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5520904582	consciousness	the process by which the brain creates a model of internal and external experiences	0
5520904583	cognitive neuroscience	the branch of neuroscience that studies the biological foundations of mental phenomena	1
5520904584	nonconscious processes	Any brain process that does not involve conscious processing, including both preconscious memories and unconscious processes.	2
5520904585	preconscious memories	Information that is not currently in consciousness but can be recalled to consciousness voluntarily or after something calls attention to them	3
5520904586	unconscious	Freudian ~ the part of the mind housing memories, desires and feeling that would be threatening if brought to consciousness. Cognitive psychology ~a collection of mental processes that happen outside of awareness	4
5520904587	daydreaming	A common variation of consciousness in which attention shifts to memories, expectations, desires, or fantasies and away from the immediate situation.	5
5520904588	circadian rhythms	Internally generated patterns of body functions, including hormonal signals, sleep, blood pressure, and temperature regulation, which have approximately a 24-hour cycle and occur even in the absence of normal cues about whether it is day or night	6
5520904589	REM sleep	rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.	7
5520904590	Non-REM sleep	Sleep stages 1 through 4, which are marked by an absence of rapid eye movements, relatively little dreaming, and varied EEG activity.	8
5520904591	sleep paralysis	condition in which during REM sleep the voluntary muscles in the body are immobile	9
5520904593	sleep debt	A sleep deficiency caused by not getting the amount of sleep that one requires for optimal functioning.	10
5520904594	manifest content	according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream taken at face value without interpretation	11
5520904595	Latent content	according to Freud, the underlying meaning of objects and events in a dream. It involves interpretation based on psychoanalytic theory	12
5520904596	activation synthesis theory	theory that dreams reflect inputs from brain activation originating in the pons, which the forebrain then attempts to weave into a story. Hence, dreams have no deep meaning.	13
5520904597	sleep apnea	a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings	14
5520904598	night terrors	a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, these occur during Stage 4 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered	15
5520904599	narcolepsy	a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times	16
5520904601	hypnosis	a state of consciousness resulting from a narrowed focus of attention, deep relaxation and characterized by heightened suggestibility	17
5520904602	meditation	a state of consciousness often induced by focusing on a repetitive behavior, assuming certain body positions and minimizing external stimulation. It is often used to enhance self knowledge, well being and spirituality	18
5520904603	psychoactive drugs	Chemicals that affect the nervous system and result in altered consciousness	19
5520904604	hallucinogens	psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input	20
5520904605	opiates	opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety.	21
5520904606	depressants	a class of drugs that slow down mental and physical activity by inhibiting transmission of neural impulses in the central nervous system	22
5520904607	stimulants	drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.	23
5520904608	tolerance	the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect	24
5520904609	physical dependence	a physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued	25
5520904610	addiction	a condition in which a person continues to engage in a behavior despite its adverse effects and (often) repeated attempts to discontinue the behavior	26
5520904611	withdrawal	the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug	27
5520904612	psychological dependence	a mental need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions even if there is no physical need.	28
5520904613	insomnia	A sleep disorder marked by difficulty in falling asleep or staying asleep	29

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AP Biology Chapter 5 Flashcards

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5477724183	macromolecule	a giant molecule formed by the joining of smaller molecules, usually by a dehydration reaction.	0
5477724184	Four classes of biological macromolecules	Proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, lipids	1
5477724185	polymer	a long molecule consisting of many similar or identical monomers linked together by covalent bonds.	2
5477724186	monomer	the subunit that serves as the building block of a polymer.	3
5477724187	dehydration synthesis	a chemical reaction in which two molecules become covalently bonded to each other with the removal of a water molecule.	4
5477724188	hydrolysis	a chemical reaction that breaks bonds between two molecules by the addition of water; functions in dis-assembly of polymers to monomers.	5
5477724189	protein	a biologically functional molecule consisting of one or more polypeptides folded and coiled into a specific three-dimensional structure.	6
5477724190	Functions of proteins	structural support, catalyst, transport, defense, movement, regulation	7
5477724191	amino acid	an organic molecule possessing both a carboxyl and an amino group. The monomers of polypeptides. There are 20 different forms. Distinguished by side chains.	8
5477724192	peptide bond	the covalent bond between the carboxyl group on one amino acid and the amino group on another, formed by a dehydration reaction.	9
5477724193	Primary structure	the level of protein structure referring to the specific linear sequence of amino acids.	10
5477724194	secondary structure	regions of repetitive coiling or folding of the polypeptide backbone of a protein due to hydrogen bonding between constituents of the backbone (not the side chains). Helix or pleated sheet.	11
5477724195	B pleated sheet	protein structure with two or more segments of the polypeptide chain link side by side (called B strands) connected by hydrogen bonds between parts of the two parallel segments of the polypeptide backbone.	12
5477724196	tertiary structure	the overall shape of a protein molecule due to interactions of amino acid side chains, including hydrophobic interactions, ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, and disulfide bridges.	13
5477724198	quaternary structure	the particular shape of a complex, aggregate protein, defined by the characteristic three-dimensional arrangement of its constituent subunits, each a polypeptide.	14
5477724199	denaturation	loss of a proteins normal 3D structure; can possibly be caused by pH and temperature which affect the ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds & hydrophilic interactions	15
5477724200	enzyme	a macromolecule serving as a catalyst, a chemical agent that increases the rate of a reaction without being consumed by the reaction. most of them are proteins.	16
5477724201	carbohydrate	a sugar (monosaccharide) or one of its dimers (disaccharides) or polymers (polysaccharides). Primarily C, H and O.	17
5477724202	What are the functions of carbohydrates	function as energy source & structure	18
5477724203	monosaccharide	the simplest carbohydrate, active alone or serving as a monomer for disaccharides and polysaccharides. Also called simple sugars, they have formulas that are generally some multiple of CH2O (1:2:1).	19
5477724204	disaccharide	a double sugar, consisting of two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic linkage formed by a dehydration reaction.	20
5477724205	glycosidic linkage	a covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction.	21
5477724206	polysaccharide	a polymer of many monosaccharides, formed by dehydration reactions.	22
5477724207	starch	a storage polysaccharide in plants, consisting entirely of glucose monomers joined by x glycosidic linkages. Used for energy storage.	23
5477724208	glycogen	an extensively branched glucose storage polysaccharide found in the liver and muscle of animals; the animal equivalent of starch.	24
5477724209	cellulose	a structural polysaccharide of plant cell walls, consisting of glucose monomers joined by B glycosidic linkages. A type of plant starch.	25
5477724210	lipids	any of a group of large biological molecules, including fats, phospholipids, and steroids, that mix poorly, if at all, with water (hydrophobic). No true monomers.	26
5477724211	What are the three types of lipids?	fats/oils, phospholipids & steroids	27
5477724212	fat/oil	a lipid consisting of three fatty acids lined to one glycerol molecule; also called a triacylglycerol or triglyceride. Function as energy storage.	28
5477724213	saturated	a fatty acid in which all carbons in the hydrocarbon tail are connected by single bonds, thus maximizing the number of hydrogen atoms that are attached to the carbon skeleton.	29
5477724214	unsaturated	a faty acid that has one or more double bonds betwen carbons in the hydrocarbon tail. such bonding reduces the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon skeleton.	30
5477724215	fatty acid	a carboxylic acid with a long carbon chain. Vary in length and __________ linked to a glycerol molecule form a fat molecule, also called triglyceride.	31
5477724216	triglyceride	a lipid consisting of three fatty acids linked to one glycerol molecule	32
5477724219	phospholipid	a lipid made up of glycerol joined to two fatty acids and a phosphate group. The hydrocarbon chains of the fatty acids act as nonpolar hydrophobic tails, while the rest of the molecule acts s a polar, hydrophilic head. They form bilayers that function as biological membrane.	33
5477724221	steroid	a type of lipid characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings with various chemical groups attached. Function as part of membranes or hormones.	34
5477724223	hydrophobic	a type of weak chemical interaction caused when molecules that do not mix with water coalesce to exclude water.	35
5477724224	disulfide bridges	a strong covalent bond formed when the sulfur of one cysteine monomer bonds to the sulfur of another cysteine monomer.	36
5477724225	polypeptide	a polymer of many amino acids linked together by peptide bonds.	37
5477724228	nucleotide	the building block of a nucleic acid, consisting of a five-carbon sugar covalently bonded to a nitrogenous base and one or more phosphate groups.	38
5477724229	phosphodiester linkage	bond between nucleotides in nucleotide chain to form polynucleotide	39
5477724233	RNA	transmission of information, consists of monomers with a ribose sugar and nitrogenous bases cytosine (C), guanine (G), adenine (A) & uracil (U). Single stranded.	40
5477724234	DNA	a nucleic acid molecule, usually a double-stranded helix, in which each polynucleotide strand consists of nucleotide monomers with a deoxyribose sugar and the nitrogenous bases adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T); capable of being replicated and determining the inherited structure of a cell's proteins.	41
5477724235	deoxyribose	the sugar component of DNA nucleotides, having one fewer hydroxyl group than ribose, the sugar component of RNA nucleotides.	42
5477724236	ribose	the sugar component of RNA nucleotides.	43

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AP Unit 2 Vocabulary Flashcards

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7533196239	If Statement	A command that allows computers to make a decision in a program	0
7533346443	==	What we use inside of an IF statement to test if something is equal.	1
7546218042	>	What we use inside of an IF statement to test if something is greater than.	2
7546220847	>=	What we use inside of an IF statement to test if something is greater than or equal to.	3
7546223291	<	What we use inside of an IF statement to test if something is less than.	4
7546225237	<=	What we use inside of an IF statement to test if something is less than or equal to.	5
7546231790	!=	What we use inside of an IF statement to test if something is not equal to.	6
7707285002	scope	When variables exist only inside of the {} of a command	7
7707290022	while loop	A command that repeats a section of code until a Boolean condition is false.	8
7707298108	De Morgan's Law	Allows you to factor into Boolean conditions	9
7707309954	Short Circuit Evaluation	A built in feature of Java that stops evaluation if the first Boolean condition is true in an \|\| and if the first Boolean condition is false in an &&	10
7707323064	Tracing Code	The act of computing a code manually	11
7707329934	Truth Tables	A representation of all possible Boolean outcomes.	12
7707335443	\|\|	Or	13
7707335592	&&	And	14
7707340412	persnickety	Big word	15
7707345058	Boolean	A condition that is either true or false	16
7707347148	Boolean Variable	A variable that only holds two values, either true or false.	17
7707353372	Garbage Collection	When Java dumps the memory from a loop when completed.	18
7707360941	Else	A command that occurs when an If statement is false.	19
7707363327	else if	A command that tests a new Boolean condition when the first if statement is false.	20

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