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chapter 42 bio (circulation and gas exchange) Flashcards

505183623	small	Diffusion is only rapid over xxxx distances
505183624	hydras, cnidarians, digestion, distribution	xxxx and xxxx are animals that lack a circulatory system, and instead use a central gastrovascular cavity which functions in xxxxx and xxxxx of substances throughout the body
505210706	inner, two, outer	In a hydra, only cells of the xxxx layer have direct access to nutrients, but since the body wall is a mere xxxx cells thick, the nutrients diffuse only a short distance to the xxx layer
505210707	radial arms, circular canal, Ciliated cells, fluid	Some cnidarians (jellies)-Mouth leads to an elaborate gastrovascular cavity that consists of xxxx xxxx leading to/from xxxx xxxx. xxxx xxxx line canals and circulate xxxx within the cavity as indicated by arrows
505210708	circulatory, gastrovasular cavity, flat, surface area, distances	Flatworms do not a have a xxxxx system. Instead their xxxx xxxx and xxxx body optimizes exchange with the environment. flat bodies optimize diffusion exchange by increasing xxxx xxxx and minimizing diffusion xxxx
505213217	circulatory fluid, interconnecting tubes, heart	A circulartory System has 3 basic components: xxxxxxx xxxxx xxxxxx xxxxx xxxxx
505329237	metabolic, hydrostatic pressure, vessels	The heart powers circulation by using xxxxxx energy to elevate the xxxxx xxxx of the circulatory fluid, which then flows through a circuit of xxxxx and back to the heart
505329238	open, directly	Arthropods and mollusks have a xxxxx circulatory system, in which circulatory fluid bathes the organs xxxx
505329239	hemolymph, interstitial	In animals with an open circulatory system, the circulatory fluid is called xxxxx and is also the xxxx fluid
505329240	contraction, hemolymph, sinuses, organs, exchange , Relaxation, pores, body movement	In an animal with an open circulatory system, xxxxx of one or more hearts pumps xxxxx through the circulatory vessels into interconnected xxxxxx (spaces surrounding xxxxx) within the sinuses, xxxxx occurs between hemoplymph and body cells. xxxxxxx of the heart draws hemolyph back into the xxxx, and xxxxx xxxx helps circulate the hemolymph by periodically squeezing the sinuses
505329241	blood, vessels, interstitial fluid	In a closed circulatory system, xxxx is confined to xxxxx and is distinct from the xxxxx xxxxx
505329242	hearts, blood, vessels, organs	In a closed circulatory system, one or more xxxx pump xxxx into large xxxxx, which branch into smaller ones coursing through the xxxx. materials are exchanged between the smallest vessels and the interstitial fluid of the cells.
505329243	annelids, cephalopods, vertebrates	xxxxxx, xxxx and xxxxx all have closed circulatory systems
505329244	hydrostatic pressure, less	[ADVANTAGES OF OPEN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM] lower xxxxx xxxxx make them xxxx energy exhausting
505329245	hydrostatic pressure, open, extend	the xxxx xxxx exerted by an xxxxx circulatory systems also provide spiders the force used to xxxx the animals legs (that's why they shrivel up when they die)
505329246	blood pressures, oxygen, nutrients, larger, blood, organs	[ADVANTAGES OF CLOSED CIRCULATORY SYSTEM] relatively high xxx xxxxx, which enable the effective delivery of xxxxx and xxxxx to cells of xxxx and more active animals Regulate the distribution of xxxx to different xxxxx
505329247	ateries, veins, capillaries	The main three types of vessels are: xxx xxxxx xxxx
505329248	arteries, arterioles, blood, capillaries	xxxxx carry blood away from the heart to organs throughout the body. within organs, they branch into xxxxx (small vessels that convey xxxx to the xxxxxx)
505329249	capillaries, walls, capillary beds, exchanging, blood, interstitial, venules, veins	xxxxxx are microscopic vessels with very thin, porous xxxx through which diffusion can occur rapidly. networks of these called xxxxx xxxx infiltrate each tissue, xxxxx chemicals between the xxxx and xxxxx fluid. At their downstream end, these converge into xxxxx, which converge into xxxx
505329250	veins, capillaries	xxxxxx are vessels that carry blood back to the heart from xxxxxx
505329251	capillaries	The portal vein is the only vein that carries blood to xxxxx
505329252	atria, ventricles	The heart of all vertebrates contain 2 or more chambers. The chambers that receive blood entering the heart are called xxxx. the chambers responsible for pumping blood out of the heart are called xxxxx
505329253	once	the heart of fish, rays, and sharks consists of 2 chambers (atrium and ventricle). the blood passes through the heart xxxx in each circuit
505329254	fish, rays, sharks	the heart of xxxx xxxx and xxxx exhibits single circulation
505329255	1	Single circulation is when only xxxx circuit of blood passing through the heart is needed
505350415	atrium, ventricle, contraction, ventricle, gills, oxygen, carbon dioxide, oxygen, heart	In Single Circulation, blood entering the heart collects in the xxxx before transfer to the xxxxx. xxxx of the xxxx pumps blood to the xxxx, where diffusion of xxxxx into the blood and xxxx xxxx out of the blood occurs. As blood leaves the gills, the capillaries converge into a vessel that carries xxxxx rich blood (Red in picture) to capillary beds throughout the body. de-oxiginated Blood (Blue in picture) then returns to the xxxx (atrium first)
505446707	2, gill, systemic, blood pressure, blood, contraction, relaxation, muscles, accelerates	In single circulation, blood that leaves the heart passes through xxxxx capillary beds (xxxx and xxxxx). When blood flows through a capillary bed, xxxxx xxxx substantially drops, which limits the rate of xxxx flow throughout the body. However, excessive swimming allows stimulates the xxxxx and xxxxx of its xxxx, which xxxxx the rate of blood flow throughout the body
505446708	amphibians, reptiles, mammals	xxxx, xxxx, and xxxx exhibit double circulation
505446709	right, poor, gas exchange, oxygen, carbon dioxide, rich, left, contraction, organs, tissues, oxygen, nutrients, poor, heart	In double circulation, the xxxx side of the heart delivers oxygen-xxxx blood to the capillary beds of the xxxxx xxxxx tissues, where xxxxx diffuses into the blood and xxxx xxxx diffuses out. (This can occur in the lungs or the lungs AND skin) As oxygen-xxxxx blood leaves from gas exchange, it enters the xxxx side of the heart. From here, xxxx of the heart propels the this blood to capillary beds in xxxx and xxxx throughout the body. At these areas, the blood diffuses xxxx and xxxx out of the blood to places of need. And finally, oxygen-xxxx blood returns to the xxxx
505446710	mammals, reptiles, lungs, gas exchange	[PART OF DOUBLE CIRCULATION] The pulmonary circuit is exhibited by xxxx and xxxx. The pulmonary circuit is the delivery of blood to the xxxx, where xxxx xxx that occurs.
505446711	amphibians, lungs, skin, gas exchange	[PART OF DOUBLE CIRCULATION] The pulmocutaneous circuit is exhibited by xxxx. The pulmocutaneous circuit is the delivery of blood to the xxxx AND xxxx, where xxxxx xxxx that occurs.
505446712	decreases, heart, high, repressurizing, gas exchange, high, low	Remember, gas exchange significantly xxxxx blood pressure.The flow of blood in double circulation is driven by the xxxx, which maintains xxxx blood pressure by xxxxxx blood after it undergoes xxxx xxxxx. this makes the blood pressure xxxx after gas exchange occurs. In single circulation, blood pressure remains relatively xxxx after gas exchange and therefore progresses slowly to the rest of the body.
505446713	3, 2, 1, ventricle, poor, right, pulmocutaneous, rich, left, systemic, lungs, skin	[HEART OF AMPHIBIAN] Amphibians have a heart with xxx chambers (xxx atria, xxx ventricle). The xxxx pumps blood into a forked artery that splits oxygen-xxxxx blood from the xxxx atrium into the xxxxxx circuit & oxygen-xxxxx blood from the xxxx atrium into the xxxxx circuit. when the amphibian goes underwater, blood flow to the xxxx shuts off, and gas exchange in the xxxx initiates.
505446714	...	[HEART OF A REPTILE] Reptiles have 3 chambered hearts, with a septum partially dividing the ventricle into separate left and right chambers. However, alligators crocodiles and caimans have 4 chambered hearts
505667546	4, completely, septum, rich, poor, oxygen	[HEART OF MAMMAL AND BIRDS] Mammals and birds have a xxx chambered heart with a ventricle that is xxxx divided by a xxxxx, (making both a left and right ventricle and aorta) The left side of the heart receives and pumps only oxygen-xxxx blood, while the right side receives and pumps only oxygen-xxxx blood. Since mammals are endotherms, the larger heart helps them circulate more quantities of xxxxx for metabolic tasks
505667547	contraction, ventricle, lungs, pulmonary arteries, oxygen, carbon dioxide, rich, pulmonary veins, atrium, ventricle, aorta, coronary arteries, heart, forelimbs, abdominal organs, hind limbs, oxygen, carbon dioxide, poor, atrium, vein, superior vena cava, inferior vena cava, ventricle	[MAMMALIAN CIRCULATION] Mammalian circulation begins when xxxx of the right xxxx pumps blood to the xxxx via the xxxxx xxxxx. as blood flows through capillary beds in the left and right lungs, it loads xxxxx and discharges xxxxx xxxx. oxygen-xxxx blood returns from the lungs via the xxxxxx xxxxx to the left xxxxx of the heart. Then, oxygen rich blood proceeds to the left xxxx. From there, the oxygen rich blood leaves via the xxxx. From here, the blood leaves the aorta via the xxxxx xxxx, which supplies the xxxx muscle with blood. From here the aorta sends blood to the capillary beds of the xxxx, then descends to the abdomen, supplying oxygen-rich blood to the capillary beds of xxxxxx xxxxx and xxxx xxxx. Within the capillaries, there is a net diffusion of xxxxx out of the blood and xxxxx xxxx into the blood. After diffusion, oxygen-xxxx blood from the forelimbs returns to right xxxx through a type of xxxx called the xxxx xxxx xxxx. oxygen-poor blood from the hindlimbs return to the right atrium of the heart via the xxxx xxxx xxx. Once at the right atrium, the blood returns to the right xxxxx and the process starts over
505667548	thin, returning, relaxes, thick, atria, left, right, equal	[DETAILED LOOK AT MAMMALIAN HEART] The 2 atria of the human heart have relatively xxxx walls and serve as collection chambers for blood xxxx to the heart. Blood flows into the ventricles from the atria when the heart xxxxx. Ventricles have xxxx walls and contract more violently than the xxxx. The xxx ventricle contracts more than the xxxx because it must pump blood to the entire body. However both ventricles still pump xxxx amounts of blood.
505667549	...	[RHYTHMIC BEATS OF HEART] When a heart contracts, it pumps blood. When a heart relaxes, it takes in blood.
505667550	...	[RHYTHMIC BEATS OF HEART] a cardiac cycle is one rhythmic cycle of heart contracting & relaxing. The contraction phase is known as the systole, and the relaxation phase is called the diastole.
505667551	...	Two factors determine cardiac output: the rate of contraction (heart rate) the amount of blood pumped by a ventricle in a single contraction (stroke volume) (average volume for human is 70ml)
505667552	4	xxxx valves of tissue prevent backflow and keep blood moving in the correct direction. Each are made of flaps of connective tissue. The atrioventricular valve lies between each atrium and ventricle. These open when the atriums conctract, (pumping blood into the ventricles) and close when the ventricles contract,(preventing back flow of blood into atrium. The semilunar valve is located where blood leaves the heart (aorta of left ventricle, pulmonary artery of right ventricle)
505667553	backward, valve	A Heart murmor is the result of blood squirting xxxxx through a defective xxxx
506042305	72, .8, veins, AV valves, atrial, ventricles, ventricular, arteries, semilunar	[CARDIAC CYCLE] A typical human heart has a rate of xxx beats per minutes and one complete cycle taking xxxx seconds. During a relaxation phase, blood returning from the large xxxx flows into the atria and ventricle through the xxxx xxx. Then a brief period of xxxxx contraction then forces all blood remaining in the atria into the xxxxx. During the remainder of the cycle, xxxxx contraction pumps blood into the large xxxx through xxxxx valves
506042306	signal, nervous, the superior vena cava, right ventricle, sinoatrial node, rate, contract	cardiac contraction is autorhythmic, meaning they contract and relax repeatedly without any xxxx from the xxxxx system. A cluster of cells located where xxxx xxxxx xxxx meets the xxxxx xxxx called the xxxxxx xxxx, sets the xxxx and timing at which all cardiac muscle cells xxxx
506042307	impulses, cardiac, gap junctions, heart, atria, contract, atrium, atrioventicular node, .1, atrias, ventricles, bundle branches, purkinje fibers	The sinoatrial node (SA) generates electrical xxxxx that act on xxxxx muscle cells. Since all cells are interconnected by xxxx xxxx, impulses given off by the SA node spread rapidly through xxxx tissue. First, the SA impulses causes both xxxx to xxxx in unison. Then the impulses reach another cluster of autorhythmic cells located between the left and right xxxxx called the xxxxx xxxx (AV). The AV node waits xxxx second so that the xxxxx can fully empty blood into the xxxxx and then conducts signals throughout the ventricular walls by specialized muscle fibers called xxxxxx xxxx and xxxxx xxxxx
506042308	sinoatrial, 2, sympathetic, parasympathetic, hormones, temperature	Physiological cues alter heart tempo by regulating the xxxxx node. xxxx nerves are responsible for this. the xxxxx nerve increases heart rate. the xxxxx nerve decreases heart rate. heart rate can also be affected by secretions of xxxxx and body xxxx
506042309	edothelium, single, epithelial,	Blood vessels contain a central lumen lined with an xxxxx (xxxx layer of flattened xxxxx cells)
506042310	small, 2, diffusion	Capillaries have a very xxxx diamter and only consists of xxx layers (which facilitates the rate of xxxxx of substances between the blood and interstitial fluid)
506042311	connective, elastic, stretch, smooth, elastic	Arteries and Veins have an endothelium that have the 2 layers of tissue surrounding it. (an outer layer of xxxxx tissue containing xxxx fibers which allow the vessel to xxxx and recoil, and a middle layer of xxxx muscle also made of xxxx fibers
506042312	larger, pressures, velocity, blood pressure, nervous, hormones	Arteries have a xxxx diameter than veins because they must pump blood at high xxxxx and xxxxx. the elastic recoil of arteries help maintain xxxxx xxxx when heart relaxes. Blood flow of arteries is controlled by signals in the xxxx system and xxxx secreted into the blood stream
506042313	smaller, pressure, velocity	Veins have a xxxx diameter than arteries because they convey blood back to the heart at a low xxxx and xxxxx
506042314	smaller, increase, decreases, pressure, velocity, diffusion	capillaries (where gas exchange occurs) have a xxxxx diameter than arteries, so one would expect the pressure in this area to xxxxx when blood coming from an artery reaches the capillaries. However, the pressure in capillaries xxxx because there are so many capillaries that the blood is distributed out to where the xxxx and xxxxx of the blood flow decreases. The decrease in velocity allows adequate xxxx of substances into the blood stream.
506042315	capillaries	diffusion and transfer of substances in the blood only occurs in the xxxxx
506042316	high, low	blood flows from areas of xxx pressure to areas of xxxx pressure
506042317	ventricular, ventricular, decrease, pressure	Arterial blood pressure is highest when the heart contracts during xxxxxx contraction (systolic pressure). The huge rush of blood into the arteries causes the arteries to xxxxx in diameter to facilitate the flow of blood without bursting. When the heart relaxes, arteries xxxx in diameter to maintain significant xxxxx to pump blood to the capillary beds
506042318	increases, decreasing	Vasoconstriction xxxxx blood pressure by xxxx the diameter of the arteries. can occur as the result of hormonal secretion
506042319	decreases, increasing	vasodialation xxxx blood pressure by xxxxx the diameter of the arteries
506042320	increase, oxygen, high, increase	physical exertion causes an xxxxxxx in the diameter of arteries to facilitate the diffusion of xxxxx to muscles, however xxxx pressure is maintained by an xxxx in heart rate
506042321	120, 70	the normal blood pressure for a human is xxx mmhg at contraction and xxxx mmhg at relaxation
506042322	smooth, skeletal, upward, inhalation, veins, increase,	blood returning to the heart from the legs must combat not only low pressure but gravity. factors that combat this are contraction of xxxx muscles, xxxxx muscles (moves blood xxxx) and xxxxx(which causes xxxxx to xxxxx in diameter to fill with blood)
506042323	brain, heart, kidney, liver	The organs that capillaries must supply with blood at all times are the xxxxx, xxxx, xxxxx, and xxxx
506042324	temperature, increases	Blood flow to skin is variable and regulated to control xxxxx. Blood flow to the digestive tract xxxx after a meal
506042325	smooth, decreases, increases, sphincters	Capillaries do not have xxxx muscles so must be aided in altering the flow of blood. contraction of the smooth muscle in the wall of arteriole xxxxx the amount of blood flow into the capillary beds. dialation of smooth muscle in the wall of arteriole xxxxx the amount of blood flow into the capillary beds. Another tactic involves precapillary xxxxxx, which open and close in response to signals
506042326	nerve, hormones, chemicals	Signals that regulate blood flow include xzxxxx impulses, xxxxx in the blood stream, and xxxxx produced locally.
506042327	histimine, relaxation, increasing	the chemical xxxxx is released by cells at a wound site, causing smooth muscle xxxx, xxxxx blood flow
506431810	won't, will	[DIFFUSION OF CAPILLARIES] When the blood pressure of the capillaries is higher than the osmotic pressure of the interstitial fluid then diffusion into the capillaries xxxx occur. When the blood pressure of the capillaries is lower than the osmotic pressure of the interstitial fluid then diffusion into the capillaries xxxx occur.
506431811	lymphatic, lymph, contractions, walls, skeletal, veins, circulatory, valves	Lost fluid and proteins return to the blood via the xxxx system. Fluid and proteins from the capillaries diffuse into the lymphatic system as a kind of fluid called xxxxx. The lymphatic system moves lymph with the help of rhythmic xxxx of vessel xxxxx and xxxxx muscles and then proceed to drain the lymph into large xxxxx of the xxxxx system at the base of the neck. lymph vessels have specialized xxxx to ensure no backflow of fluid into the lymphatic vessels
506431812	organ, immunity, filtering, viruses, bacteria	lymph nodes are a type of xxxxx that play a big role in the body's xxxxx by xxxxx lymph and housing cells that attack xxxx and xxxx
506431813	connective, liquid, plasma	Vertebrate blood is actually a type of xxxxx tissue of cells suspended in a xxxxx matrix called xxxxx
506863347	salts, ions, electrolytes, buffers, osmotic	Blood plasma contains many inorganic xxxx in the form of dissolved xxxx referred to as blood xxxx. these act as pH xxxxx to maintain the blood pH of 7.4. Salts are also important in maintaining xxxxx balance of the blood.
506863348	buffers, osmotic, lipids, clotting, viscosity	Blood plasma contains many proteins that act as pH xxxx, help maintain xxxxx balance, help provide passage for xxxx, help plug leaks in injured vessels by acting as xxxx factors, and contribute to blood's xxxxx
506863349	protein, viruses	Antibodies are a type of blood plasma xxxxx that help combat xxxx and other foreign agents that invade the body
506863350	erythrocytes, oxygen, hemoglobin, oxygen, nuclei, mitochondria, anaerobically	xxxxxx (Red blood cells) transport xxxxx. contain xxxxx (iron containing compound that transfers xxxxx ), lack xxxxx and a xxxx and generate ATP xxxxx
506863351	defense	Leukocytes (white blood cells) function in xxxx
506863352	bone marow, clotting, nuclei	Platelets are a fragments of xxxx xxxx cells part of blood that function in xxxx. lack a xxxxx
506863353	250, 4	1 red blood cell houses xxxx million hemoglobin, and each hemoglobin carries xxxx oxygen molecules
506863354	endothelium, connective, blood, platelets, collagen, prothrombin, thrombin, enzyme, fibrinogen, fibrin	[BLOOD CLOTTING] Blood clotting initiates when xxxxxx of a vessel is damaged, exposing xxxx tissue in the vessel wall to xxxx. xxxx adhere to the xxxxx and form a seal to prevent leaking. Clotting converts a plasma protein called xxxxx to its active form, xxxx. Thrombin is an xxxx that converts the sealant (xxxx) to xxxx
506863355	clot	Hemophillia is a genetic mutation that is characterized by excessive bleeding and bruising from inability of blood to effectively xxxxx.
506863356	clot, blood	A thrombus is the formation of a xxxx within a blood vessel, blocking the flow of xxxx
506863357	erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets	xxxxxx, xxxxx and xxxx all develop from stem cells
506863358	Negative, erythrocyte, oxygen, Kidneys, erythropoietin, erythrocyte	xxxxx feed-back system controls xxxxx production based on the amount of xxxxxx reaching body tissues If oxygen levels are low, the xxxxx secrete the hormone xxxxxx (EPO) that stimulates xxxxx production
506863359	hemoglobin, erythropoietin	Anemia is a condition that is characterized by xxxxxx deficiency. This can be treated by injecting the hormone xxxxx (EPO) into the persons blood
506863360	cardiovascular, plaque, arteries	Atherosclerosis is a xxxxxx disease caused by a buildup of xxxxx within xxxx
506863361	cardiac muscle, coronary arteries	A heart attack is the damage of death of xxxxx xxxx resulting from blockage of one or more xxxxxx xxxxx
506863362	nervous, brain, oxygen, arteries, head	A stroke is the death of xxxx tissue in the xxxx due to lack of xxxx. result from the rupture or blockage of xxxxxx in the xxxx
506863363	cholesterol, increases, decreases, statin	A major contributor to atherosclerosis is xxxxxx. low-density lipoproteins xxxxx the amount of plaque in arterial walls. high-density lipoproteins xxxxx the amount of plaque in arterial walls. The drug xxxx lowers LDL levels.
506863364	high, heart attack, stroke, plaque, endothelium, 140, 90	hypertension (xxxx blood pressure) is another contributor to xxxx xxx and xxxxx by promoting xxxxx formation in arteries by damaging the xxxxx that lines the arteries. increases systolic pressure above xxxxx mmHg and increases diastolic pressure above xxxx mmHg
506863365	atherosclerosis, thrombus, aspirin, CRP	Inflammation is a contributor to xxxxxx and xxxx formation. can be combated with the drug xxxx. the protein xxxx also lowers the amount of inflammation
506863366	air	Partial pressure of gas in solution equals the partial pressure of gas in xxxx. The concentration of a gas in the solution is not the same as the amount in the air however
506863367	high, low	Gas diffuses from a region of xxxx partial pressure to a region of xxxx partial pressure
506863368	parapoida, gills	many polychaetes have a pair of flattened appendages called xxxxxx. the parapoida function as xxxxx
506863369	...	Crayfish have long feathery gills covered by the exoskeleton. specialized body appendages drive water over the surface of the gills
506863370	skin, feet	the gills of a sea star are tubular projections of the xxxx. its tube xxxx also function in gas exchange
506863371	mouth, 2, gill, lamellae, blood, lamellae, oxygen	Fish pumps water across its gills by opening its xxxx. each gill possesses xxxx rows of xxxxx filaments, composed of flattened plates called xxxxx. xxxx flowing through capillaries within the the xxxxx picks up xxxxx from the water
506863372	oxygen, opposite	The countercurrent flow allows aquatic fish to maximize diffusion of xxxx into the blood by having water flow across the fish's gills in the xxxxx direction in which the blood of the fish is

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APUSH Chapter 6: The Constitution and the New Republic (1787-1800) Flashcards

Newman and Schmalback
United States History: Preparing for the Advanced Placement Examination

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15442244	Mt. Vernon Conference	George Washington hosted this at his home in VA (1785); VA, MD, PA, and DE reps agreed that problems were serious enough with the Articles to prompt further discussions at a later meeting in Annapolis, MD, where the states might be represented
15442245	Annapolis Convention	only 5 states sent delegates to this in 1786 and James Madison with Alexander Hamilton convinced the other delegates that a convention should be in Philly to revise the Articles
15442246	Constitutional Convention	called the 13 states to send delegates to Philly to revise the Articles of Confederation; only Rhode Island didn't go
15442247	Framers of Constitution	George Washington was the chairperson; Ben Franklin was the elder statesman who unified the people; the direct Framers were James Madison (director, "father of the Constitution"), Alexander Hamilton, Gouverneur Morris, and John Dickinson
15442248	Checks and balances	when a branch of government has sufficient power to check the others)
15442249	VA Plan	favored large states in proportional representation
15442250	NJ Plan	favored the small states in proportional representation
15442251	CT Plan; Great Compromise	2 House Congress, equal representation in the Senate, but the larger body (the House), would be represented according to proportional representation
15442252	3/5ths Compromise; slave trade	each slave counted as 3/5s of a person for the purposes of determining a state's level of taxation and representation
15442253	Commercial Compromise	allowed Congress to regulate interstate and foreign commerce, including placing tariffs (taxes) on foreign imports, but it prohibited placing taxes on any exports
15442254	Electoral College System	delegates assign to each state a number of electors equal to the total of that state's representatives and senators; instituted because the delegates at Philadelphia feared that too much democracy might lead to mob rule
15442255	Federalists	those who supported Constitution and a strong federal government (Atlantic Coast, large cities)
15442256	Anti-Federalists	Opponents of the Constitution and Federal government (small farmers and settlers along the Western frontier)
15442257	The Federalist Papers	highly persuasive essays by Madison, Hamilton and Jay, which presented cogent reasons for believing in the practicality of each major provision of the Constitution: "supreme law of the land"
15442258	Bill of Rights; amendments	drafted by Madison in 1791; guarantees that Anti-Federalists wanted against possible abuses of power by the central (or federal) government
15442259	Legislative Branch	Congress
15442260	Executive departments; cabinet	authorized by Constitution that president can appoint chiefs of departments as long as they are approved by Senate; 4 Heads of Departments; Jefferson as Secretary of State, Hamilton as secretary of treasury, Knox as secretary of war, and Randolph as attorney general
15442261	Judiciary Act (1789)	Established a Supreme Court with one chief justice and 5 associate justices; empowered to rule on constitutionality of decisions made by state courts; act also provided for a system of 13 district courts and three circuit courts of appeals
15442262	National debt	Hamilton proposed to pay off the national debt at face value and have the federal government assume the war debts of the states
15442263	Infant industries	Hamilton proposed to protect the young nation's new and developing industries by imposing high tariffs on imported goods
15442264	National bank	Hamilton proposed to create a national bank for depositing govt funds and for printing banknotes that would provide the basis for a state US currency
15442265	Tariffs; excise taxes	to raise enough revenue to pay govt debts, Hamilton got Congress to pass these on certain goods (i.e. Whiskey)
15442266	French Revolution	When it broke out, France and US had an alliance with French monarchy but not the revolutionary republic; agreed with France and France's side especially against Britain
15442267	Proclamation of Neutrality (1793)	Washington believed the young nation was not strong enough to go to war and as a result, he proclaimed neutrality in the French conflict
15442268	"Citizen" Edmund Genet	Objecting to Washington's policy, Genet, the French ambassador to the US, broke all the normal rules of diplomacy by appealing directly to the American people in support of the French cause
15442269	Jay Treaty (1794)	US was tired of British searches and seizures of American ships and impressments of seamen into the British navy; after a year of talks, he made a treaty with British where they agreed to evacuate Western frontier posts, but said nothing of British seizures of American merchant ships
15442270	Pinckney Treaty (1795)	Thomas Pinckney, US Ambassador to Spain, negotiated a treaty with Spain to open the lower Mississippi River and New Orleans to America
15442271	Right of deposit	ability for Americans to transit cargoes to New Orleans without paying duties to Spanish govt
15442272	Battle of Fallen Timbers	General Wayne defeats Shawnee, Wyandot and other Native Americans in this battle in NW Ohio; the next year, the Chiefs of the defeated peoples agreed to the Greenville Treaty where they surrendered the Ohio Territory for settlement
15442273	Whisky Rebellion (1794)	PA, farmers refused to pay federal excise tax on whiskey and they attacked revenue collects; Washington federalized 15000 state militiamen and put them under Hamilton's command, scaring the farmers and ending the rebellion
15442274	Public Land Act (1796)	established orderly procedures for dividing and selling federal lands at reasonable prices
15442275	Federalist Era	1790s were dominated by two Federalist figures around which political parties formed: Hamilton and Jefferson; Hamilton's federalists supposed his financial programs (loose interpretation of Constitution but strong central government)
15442276	Democratic-Republican party	supported Jefferson (anti Hamilton programs); southern state support and western frontier, whose political platform protected states' rights and strict containment of federal power
15442277	Washington's farewell Address	called for Americans to not get involved in European affairs, no permanent alliances, no political parties, and no sectionalism
15442278	two-term tradition	Washington left after two terms of office and set a precedent that was followed by all until FDR
15442279	John Adams	Federalist candidate, and winner by 3 electoral votes; Jefferson was VP because he had 2nd most votes
15442280	XYZ Affair	when Americans were angered by prospect of US merchant ships being taken by the French, emissaries were sent to France by Adams and French Ministers X, Y, and Z requested bribes before negotiations could be had; delegates were livid and wanted war but Adams diffused the situation and sent new ministers
15442281	Alien Act	authorized president to deport aliens considered dangerous and to detain any enemy aliens in a time of war
15442282	Sedition Act	made it illegal for newspaper editors to criticize either the president or Congress and imposed heavy penalties on those who broke the law
15442283	KY and VA resolutions	KY (Jefferson) and VA (Madison), which declared that the states had entered into a "compact" in forming the national government and therefore, if any act of the federal government broke the compact, a state could nullify federal law
15442284	Revolution of 1800	in response to the Alien and Sedition Acts, and taxes, Jefferson won the election of 1800 and it was called a revolution because it was a successful transfer from one political party to another done without violence (Federalist to Democratic-Republican)

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Macromolecules Quiz Flashcards

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19094536	Monomer	The simple starting material or single unit from which a polymer is built. It refers to the repeat units that make up the polymer chains. A molecule that may react chemically to another molecule of the same type to form a larger molecule.
19094537	Polymer	Compound made of several repeating units (monomers). A molecule composed of repeated subunits. Several smaller, similar units in a chain to create a larger molecule with new properties.
19094538	4 Macromolecules	Protein, carbohydrate, nucleic acid, lipid
19094539	What are the monomers that make up proteins?	amino acids
19094540	What are the monomers that make up carbohydrates?	monosaccharides, simple sugars
19094541	What are the monomers that make up nucleic acids?	nucleotides
19094542	Why are lipids not considered polymers?	Polymer = Several smaller, similar units in a chain to create a larger molecule with new properties. Lipids = have no single sub-unit
19094543	Recognize the four macromolecules based on structural diagrams	Protein - CCN backbone, lipid - three chains (triglycerol), polysaccharide - multi rings connected, disaccharide - two carb rings connected
19094544	What is the difference between mono, di, and polysaccharides?	mono = one simple sugar, di = two saccharides covalently linked, poly = sequence of monosaccharide and disaccharide units to make is longer/bigger
19094545	What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated acids (fats)?	sat - solid at room temp, not essential, harder to digest, carbon atoms have a single bond between them and as many hydrogen atoms as possible are bonded to the carbon atoms, unsat - liquid at room temp, contains a carbon-carbon double bond
19094546	What is the role of the dehydration synthesis in building up polymers?	an H from one carbohydrate and an OH from another are taken out. They form water. The two carbohydrates are then joined together by a bond called a glycosidic linkage. you build while taking water out
19094547	What is the role of hydrolysis in breaking down polymers?	opposite of dehydration synthesis. add water to break down a molecule.
19094548	How does Benedict's solution work and what does it test for? What does a positive result look like?	mix with food and heat. test of monosaccharides (simple sugars, glucose), light blue in color, turns to green, yellow/orange, or even red when heated in the presence of simple sugars
19094549	How does Biuret work and what does it test for? What does a positive result look like?	shake with test food. protein indicator, light blue in color, changes to violet or purple (very light violet to deep purple)
19094550	How does Lugol's Iodine work and what does it test for? What does a positive result look like?	mix with test food. test for starch, yellow or light brown in color, positive it turns dark purple or even black
19094551	How does Sudan III work and what does it test for? What does a positive result look like?	mix with test food. test for lipids, changes to orange red
19109908	Proteins are polymers. TF	True
19109909	Glucose is a polysaccharide. TF	False
19109910	Lugol's Iodine indicates the presence of sugar. TF	False
19109911	There are 20 different amino acids. TF	True
19109912	Carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins are good sources of energy. TF	False
19109913	A monounsaturated fat only has one double bond. TF	True
19109914	Saturated fats are liquid at room temperature. TF	False
19109915	Hydrolysis is the chemical reaction that helps build up polymers.	False
19109916	Since water is a polar molecule, why do lipids not dissolve in water?	Lipids are nonpolar.

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Macromolecule Quiz Flashcards

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484306541	lipid	hydrophobic molecule
484306542	lipid	does not form polymers
484306543	lipids	consist mostly of hydrocarbons, with nonpolar covalent bonds
484306544	fats	glycerol and fatty acids
484306545	fatty acid	carboxyl group attached to long carbon skeleton
484306546	ester linkage	bond joins fatty acid to glycerol
484306547	saturated fatty acid	no double bonds, maximum number of hydrogen atoms
484306548	unsaturated fatty acids	one or more double bonds
484306549	saturated fatty acid	packed closely together, solid at room temp
484306550	unsaturated fatty acid	liquid at room temperature
484306551	unsaturated fatty acid	bent shape
484306552	hydrogenation	process of converting unsaturated fats to saturated fats by adding hydrogen
484306553	energy storage	major function of fats
484306554	phospholipid	two fatty acids and a phosphate group attached to glycerol
484306555	hydrophobic	two tails of phospholipids are...
484306556	hydrophillic	head of phospholipid is...
484306557	steroids	lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton of four fused rings
484306558	cholersterol	important steroid
484306559	enzyme	protein that acts as a catalyst to speeding up chemical reactions
484306560	20	number of amino acids
484306561	polypeptides	unbranched polymers built from amino acids
484306562	protein	molecule that consists of one or more polypeptides
484306563	amino acids	organic molecules with carboxyl and amino group
484306564	peptide bonds	amino acids linked by..
484306565	C-terminus	carboxyl end of polypeptide
484306566	N-terminus	amino end of polypeptide
484306567	primary structure	protein structure-unique sequence of amino acids (peptide bonds)
484306568	secondary structure	coils and folds in polypeptide change (hydrogen bonds)
484306569	tertiary structure	interactions among various side chains (sulfur bridges)
484306570	quarternary structure	protein with multiple polypeptide chains
484306571	collagen	fibrous protein consisting of three polypeptide coiled like a rope
484306572	hemoglobin	four polypeptides: two alpha nd two bet chains
484306573	sickle-cell disease	results from single amino acid substitution
484306574	denaturation	loss of protein's native structure
484306575	chaperonin	protein molecules that assist in proper folding of other proteins
484306576	X-ray crystallography	determines protein structure
484306577	gene	unit of inheritance
484306578	DNA	nucleic acid made of nucleotides
484306579	DNA, RNA	two types of nucleic acid
484306580	nucleic acid	polymers called polynucleotides
484306581	nucleotide	monomer of polynucleotide
484306582	nitrogenous base, pentose sugar, phosphate group	three parts of a nucleotide
484306583	cytosine, thymine, uracil	pyrimidines
484306584	adenine, guanine	purine
484306585	deoxyribose	sugar in DNA
484306586	ribose	sugar in RNA
484306587	H-OH	DNA-RNA
484306588	monosaccharide	monomer of sugar
484306589	polysaccharide	polymer of sugar
484306590	glycosidic linkage	linkage in sugar
484306591	fatty acid	monomer of lipid
484306592	triacylglyceride	polymer of lipid
484306593	ester linkage	linkage in lipids
484306594	amino acid	monomer in protein
484306595	polypeptides	polymer in protein
484306596	peptide bonds	linkage in protein
484306597	nuceotide	monomer in nucleic acid
484306598	polynucleotide	polymer in nucleic acid
484306599	phospodiester linkage	linkage in nucleic acid
484306600	macromolecule	large molecules composed of many covalently linked atoms
484306601	dehydration reaction	two monomer bond together
484306602	dehydration reaction	loss of water molecule
484306603	enzyme	speed up dehydration process
484306604	hydrolysis	polymers disassembled
484306605	hydrolysis	adds water
484306606	bonds broken	by addition of water molecules...
484306607	carbohydrates	sugars and polymers of sugars
484306608	simplest carbohydrates	monosaccharides
484306609	monosaccharide	one oxygen (carbonyl group)
484306610	cellulose	most abundant organic compound on earth

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AP Government: Chapter 2 - The Constitution Flashcards

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9941545	Unalienable	a human right based on nature or God
9941546	Articles of Confederation	a weak Constitution that governed America during the Revolutionary war
9941547	Constitutional Convention	meeting in Philadelphia in 1787 that produced a new Constitution
9941548	Virginia Plan	proposal to create a strong national government
9941549	New Jersey Plan	proposal to create a weak national government
9941550	Great Connecticut Compromise	plan to have a popularly elected House based on State population and a state selected Senate, with two members for each State
9941551	Republic	a government in which elected representatives make the decisions
9941552	Judicial Review	the power of the courts to declare laws unconstitutional
9941553	Federalism	government authority shared by National and State governments
9941554	Separation of Powers	constitutional authority is shared by three different branches of government
9941555	Faction	a group with a distinct political interest
9941556	Federalists	those who favor a stronger National government
9941557	Anti-Federalists	those who favor a weaker National government
9941558	Coalition	an alliance of factions
9941559	Writ of Habeas Corpus	an order to produce an arrested person before a judge
9941560	Bill of Attainder	a law that declares a person or group of people, without a trial, to be convicted of a crime
9941561	Ex Post Facto Law	a law that makes an act criminal although the act was legal when it was committed
9941562	3/5ths Rule	in determining representation, each state was to have in the House, "three-fifths of all other persons" (slaves) are to be added to the "whole number of free persons".
9941563	Line-item Veto	an executive's ability to block a particular provision in a bill passed by the legislature

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Macromolecules test 1 Flashcards

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54796597	Four Kinds of Macromolecules	carbs, proteins, lipids, Nucleic Acids
54796598	All Macromolecules contain	carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
54796599	Some macromolecules contain	nitrogen, phosphorous, and iron
54796600	Carbohydrates are composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen and sometimes	chitin and nitrogen
54796601	Where is chitin found	funghus cell walls
54796602	Simple Carbohydrates	Sugars, monosaccharides, and disaccharides
54796603	Examples of Monosaccharides	Glucose, Fructose Galactose
54796604	Complex Carbohydrates	polysaccharides
54796605	Examples of Disaccharides	lactose, maltose, and sucrose.
54796606	Galactose+glucose	lactose
54796607	Examples of polysaccharides	starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin
54796608	starch and glycogen provide,	energy
54796609	cellulose and chitin provide	structural support
54796610	Two functions of polysaccharides are,	energy, and structural support.
54796611	why are saturated fats solid at room temperature?	straight chain
54796612	Why are unsaturated fats liquid at room temperature?	slanted chain
54796613	three levels of a triglyceride	1. glycerol 2. Oxygen atoms 3. fatty acid chains
54796614	Why only 20 amino acids	scientists believe that the first forms of life had 20 amino acids
54796615	DNA is made up of subunits called,	nucleotides
54799520	Proteins are made up of	amino acid chains.

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Cellular Respiration Flashcards

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506037800	cellular respiration	breaks chemical bonds of food to get ATP
506037801	oxidation	The loss of electrons from a substance involved in a redox reaction.
506037802	reduction	The addition of electrons to a substance involved in a redox reaction.
506037803	redox reaction	A chemical reaction involving the transfer of one or more electrons from one reactant to another; also called oxidation-reduction reaction.
506037804	Electron transport chain	uses the high-energy electrons NADH from the Krebs cycle to convert ADP into ATP inner mitochondrial membrane breaks the fall of electrons into many energy releasing steps the last molecule in the chain passes the electrons to oxygen oxygen picks up two hydrogen to form water
506037805	glycolysis	the anaerobic breakdown of glucose to pyruvic acid, which makes a small amount of energy available to cells in the form of ATP cytosol of cells 2 ATP are produced by substrate level phosphorylation
506037806	substrate level phosphorylation	The formation of ATP by an enzyme(PEP) directly transferring a phosphate group to ADP from an intermediate substrate in catabolism; occurs during glycolysis and the Krebs cycle
506037807	energy investment phase	in this part of glycolysis, the cell spends 2 ATP
506037808	energy payoff phase	in this part of glycolysis, the cell produces 4 ATP, 2NADH, and 2H+
506037809	cellular respiration formula	C6H₁₂O6 + 6O2 --> 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + energy
506037810	PEP	catalyzed to pyruvate which is used in krebs cycle
506037811	Transition step	2 pyruvates move to the mitochondrial matrix with the aid of a transport protein. 2 carbon pieces are oxidized to acetate and the electrons are transferred to NAD+ to make NADH
506037812	Acetyl CoA	coenzyme A attaches to acetate to make is fed into the Krebs cycle with the CoA part removed to be used again.
506037813	transition step CO2	1st place CO2 leaves 2 molecules because 2 pyruvates
506037814	Krebs Cycle	citric acid cycle , stage of cellular respiration that finishes the breakdown of pyruvic acid molecules to carbon dioxide, releasing energy
506037815	Krebs cycle end products	3 NADH, 1 FADH2, 1ATP for one glucose you get double end products (6,2,2) because spins twice, one for each pyruvate
506037816	Chemiosmosis	An energy-coupling mechanism that uses energy stored in the form of a hydrogen ion gradient across a membrane to drive cellular work, such as the synthesis of ATP. Most ATP synthesis in cells occurs by chemiosmosis. ETC pumps hydrogen ions across the mitochondrial membrane exergonic flow of electrons, energy released to push the ions out against the concentration gradient H+ leaks back across the membrane due to concentration gradient (need protein channels)
506037817	ATP synthesis	protein structure in a cell's mitochondria that uses energy from H+ ions to convert ADP to ATP uses exergonic flow of H+ to drive oxidative phosphorylation of ADP to ATP
506037818	net gain	36-38 ATP

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Chapter 17; Foundations of Christian Society in Western Europe Flashcards

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297424832	Germanic Kingdoms	By late 5th century invaders had organized series of Germanic kingdoms as successor states in place of Roman empire. Visigoths conquered Spain by 470s, Ostrogoths dominated Italy until 530s when Byzantine forces reasserted imperial authority. Lombards moved into Italy once Byzantine army left. Mid 5th century Gaul fell under control of the Burgundians&the Franks. Angles, Saxons&other Germanic peoples established regional kingdoms in Britain. They absorbed Roman influence, many converted to Christianity. None of them had economic or military resources, but the Franks built impressive imperial state that temporarily organized half the territories.
297424833	The Franks	Franks influenced political, social&cultural development of western Europe. They constructed a society based on agricultural resources of continental Europe. Franks oversaw the development of decentralized political institutions which influenced European politics&society for more than a millennium. Also made a firm alliance w/western Christian church&helped Roman Christianity maintain cultural&religious primacy in western Europe.
297424834	Clovis	Ruled the Franks from 481-511, 486 he led Frankish forces on a campaign that wiped out the last vestiges of Roman authority in Gaul, then imposed authority on Franks themselves. He organized campaigns against other Germanic people whose states bordered the Frankish realm in Gaul. By the time of his death, the Franks had become the most powerful&dynamic people building new states in western Europe.
297424835	Clovis's Conversion	Originally, all Germanic invaders of the Roman empire were polytheists who honored many warlike gods&other deities representing elements of nature like sun, moon&wind. As they settled in/around Roman empire, many converted to Christianity. Most accepted Arian Christianity(popular in eastern Roman empire), in Rome&Constantinople they believed Arian views as heretical. Franks remained mostly pagan until Clovis, who converted to Roman rather than Arian Christianity. Clovis's conversion reflected influence of his wife Clotilda, a devout Christian who urged him to adopt her faith.
297424836	The Carolingians	Carolingians took over Clovis's successors in 8th century. Founder Charles Martel(Charles the Hammer), known for military prowess. 732 at the Battle of Tours, he turned back a Muslim army that had come from Spain in order to reconquer lands north of Pyrenees mountains. His victory helped persuade Muslim rulers of Spain that it was not worthwhile for them to seek further conquests in western Europe. Charles Martel never ruled as king of the Franks but as deputy to the last of Clovis's descendants, by 751 Charles's son claimed empire for himself.
297424837	Charlemagne	Frankish realm reached its high point under Martel's grandson, Charlemagne(Charles the Great), reigned from 768-814. Temporarily reestablished centralized imperial rule in a society disrupted by invasion&contests for power between ambitious local rulers. Barely literate, he spoke Latin, understood some Greek&conversed w/theologians&other learned men. Maintained diplomatic relations w/Byzantine empire&Abbasid caliphate. When he inherited Frankish throne his realm included France, Belgium, the Netherlands&southwestern Germany.By his death in 814 his empire included Spain, Bavaria&Italy. He campaigned for 32years to impose rule on Saxons of northern Germany&repress their rebellions. Rulers in eastern Europe&southern Italy paid tribute to Charlemagne as imperial overlord.
297424838	Charlemagne's Administration	Charlemagne established court&capital in Aachen but spent most time traveling through his realm in order to maintain authority. He did not have financial resources to maintain elaborate bureaucracy or administrative apparatus that could implement policies. Instead he relied on aristocratic deputies(counts) who held political, military&legal authority in local jurisdictions. Counts often had political ambitions&sometimes pursued policies contrary to interests of central gov't.Charlemagne ordered new group of officials known as missi dominici(envoys of the lord ruler) who traveled every year to all local jurisdictions&reviewed accounts of local authorities. Charlemagne hesitated to call himself emperor b/c imperial title would challenge the authority of Byzantine emperors who regarded themselves as sole&legit successors of Roman emperors.
297424839	Charlemagne as Emperor	In 800, Charlemagne accepted title of emperor. While campaigning in Italy, he attended a service on Christmas day conducted by Pope Leo III, who proclaimed Charlemagne as emperor&placed an imperial crown on his head. Charlemagne didn't want to strain relationships w/Byzantine emperors but he had already built an imperial state&his coronation constituted public recognition of his accomplishments.
297424840	Louis the Pious	Charlemagne's only surviving son reigned 814-840, succeeded his father&kept the Carolingian empire together. Louis lost control of the counts&other local authorities who increasingly pursued their own interests&ignored the central gov't . Before Louis's death, his three sons disputed the inheritance of the empire&waged war against each other. 843 they decided to divide the empire into 3 equal portions&each took one portion to rule as king, the Carolingian empire dissloved.
297424841	Invasions	In 9th century, three groups of invaders pillaged Frankish realm in search of wealth stored in towns&missionaries. From the south came Muslims who raided towns, villages, churches& monasteries in Mediterranean Europe, they seized Sicily&several territories in southern Italy&France. From the east came Magyars, descendants of nomadic people from central Asia who settled in Hungary, they were expert horsemen&raided settlements in Germany, Italy&southern France. From the north came the Vikings, most feared of all invaders who mounted raids in northern France even during Charlemagne's rule.
297424842	Norse Expansion	Viking invasions represented part of Norse expansion that began around 800, motives for expansion included population pressure in Scandinavian lands&resistance to Christian missions that sought to abolish pagan gods&beliefs. 8th century,Norse mariners developed remarkable shipbuilding techniques that allowed them to travel safely in open ocean. 1000, a small group established a colony at Newfoundland&explored the Atlantic coast of North America as far as Maine. Colonies in North America survived no more than a few decades&colony in Greenland disappeared around 1500 after a cooling climate made it difficult to cultivate food crops there. Colonies in Greenland&North America demonstrated ability of Norse people to travel safely over large distance of open ocean. Norse cultivators could migrate from their homelands to establish new agricultural communities in north Atlantic basin b/c of great seafaring skills. Most Norse seafarers were merchants seeking commercial opportunities or migrants seeking lands to cultivate. Vikings raided&plundered settlements.
297424843	The Vikings	Vikings sailed shallow boats that could cross heavy seas&also navigate rivers offering access to interior regions of Europe. They coordinated ships' movements&timed attacks to take advantage if tides. In 844 CE, more than 150 Viking ships sailed up Garonne River in southern France, plundering settlements along the way. By following Russian rivers to the Black Sea, other Vikings made their way to Constantinople, which they raided at least three times during the 9th&10th centuries.
297424844	England	In England, invasions prompted the series of small kingdoms established earlier by Angles, Saxons&other Germanic tribes to merge into a single largert realm. The leader of this effort was King Alfred(871-899), who expanded from his base in southern England to Danish territories farther north. Alfred built a navy to challenge the Vikings at sea&made fortresses on land to secure areas he conquered from invaders. Danish settlers occupied agricultural lands but by mid 10th century, Alfred's successors established themselves as kings of all England.
297424845	Germany	In Germany, response to invasion brought the end of Carolingian rule&formation of a more effective state under a new dynasty. When Carolingian authorities were unable to to prevent invasions by the Magyars, local lords took matters into their own hands. Most successful was King Otto I of Saxony(936-973). In 955 he faced a large Magyar army@Lechfeld near Augsburg&inflicted a defeat that ended the Magyar threat. Otto also imposed his authority through Germany&twice he led army to Italy to support papacy against Lombard magnates. 962 pope declared him emperor&bestowed imperial crown on him. Otto's realm was a German kingdom but imperial title survived until 19th century.
297424846	France	In France, Carolingian rule led to proliferation of local authorities. Counts&other subordinates of Carolingians withdrew allegiance from the central gov't, ruled their territories in their own interests&usurped royal rights&prerogatives for themselves. They collected taxes, organized armed forces, built castles&provided justice without reference to the Carolingians or other central authorities. Vikings established settlements in northern France where they carved out small independent states. The devolution of political&military responsibility to local authorities in 10th century France encouraged the development of a decentralized political order.
297424847	Lords & Retainers	To organize territories, local nobles built military&politcal relationships w/prominent individuals in other territories. They drew on military talent during the later Roman empire&early Frankish kingdom&mobilized small private armies by attracting armed retainers into their services w/grants of land or money. As Carolingian empire dissolved, local authorities revived recruitment practices. Local lords provided grants enabling retainers to support themselves&family. Grants were usually land but could be a mill, right to receive payment from a village or even a payment of money. Grants enabled retainers to to devote their time&energy to the service of their lords rather than cultivating food&providing for families. Grants provided resources that retainers needed to maintain horses&acquire expensive military equipment like armor&weapons. In exchange for grants, retainers owed loyalty, obedience, respect, counsel&military service to their lords. Retainers became responsible for the organizations of local public work projects, the resolutions of disputes&administration of justice. Political authorities&military specialists merged into a hereditary noble class that lived of the surplus agricultural production that it extracted from cultivators.
297424848	Potential for Instability	The decentralized political order developed into a complicated&confusing network of relationships between lords&retainers. A lord w/several retainers might be a retainer to a high lord, who in turn might be a retainer to a greater lord who in a web of relationships extending from local communities to a king. Dependence on the relationship between lord&retainer added an element of instability into the political order since retainers sometimes decided to pursue their own interests rather than those of their lords. Unless lords could discipline&control their retainers, this decentralized political order had strong potential to lead to political chaos. It was also possible for high-ranking lords to build powerful states on the foundation of relationships between lords&retainers.
297424849	Serfs	Development of decentralized political order accompanied fundamental changes in European society, especially for slaves&free peasants. Roman&Germanic societies had recognized enslaved&free classes&for centuries after the fall of the Roman empire, the population of western Europe consisted mostly of slaves&free peasants. Slaves&free peasants worked at the same kinds of agricultural tasks&frequently intermarried. Free peasants sought protection from a lord&pledged their labor&obedience in exchange for security&land to cultivate. Rulers&administrators recognized intermediate categories of individuals neither fully slave or fully free. Semifree individuals known as serfs, owed obligations to the lords whose lands they cultivated.
297424850	Serfs' Obligations	Serfs had the right to work certain lands& to pass rights to those lands along to their heirs as long as they observed obligations to the lords. Obligations included both labor service&payments of rents in kind, such as a portion of a serf's own harvest, a chicken or 12 eggs@specified times during the year. Male serfs worked 3days a week in the fields of their lords&provided additional labor services during harvesting&planting seasons while women made butter, cheese, beer, spun thread, wove cloth/clothes for lords&their families. Women also kept sheep&cattle&obligations to the lords included products from their herds. Serfs had little opportunity to move to different lands, could only do so w/permission from lords&had to pay fees for right to marry serf working for other lord.
297424851	Manors	During early middle ages, serfdom encouraged development of the manor as principal form of agricultural organization in western Europe. Manor was a large estate consisting of fields, meadows, forests, agricultural tools, domestic animals&sometimes lakes or rivers as well as serfs bound to the land. Lord of manor was prominent political/military figure, he&his deputies provided gov't, administration, police services&justice for the manor. Many lords had authority to execute serfs for serious crimes like murder. By Carolingian era, manors dominated rural regions in much of France, western Germany&low countries&southern England&northern Italy. In absence of thriving cities, manors became largely self-sufficient communities. Lords of the manor had breweries, bakeries, mills&wineries&serfs produced most of the iron tools, leather goods, domestic utensils&textiles that the manorial community needed. During high middle ages, craft skills developed on manors would help fuel impressive round of economic development in western Europe.
297424852	Agriculture	Agricultural tools&techniques inherited from the classical Mediterranean world didn't transfer very well. In light, well-drained Mediterranean soils, cultivators used small wooden plows that basically broke the surface of the soil, created a furrow, and disrupted weeds. This type of plow made little headway in the heavy moist soils of the north.
297424853	Heavy Plows	After 8th century, a heavy tool equipped w/iron tips that dug into the earth&w/a mould-board that turned the soil as to aerate it thoroughly&break up the root networks of weeds became available. It was an expensive piece of equipment&required cultivators to harness more energy to pull it through moist soil. Once hitched to oxen or horses, the heavy plow contributed significantly to increased agricultural production. Serfs cleared new lands for cultivation, constructed watermills&developed a horse collar which allowed them to rely less on slow-moving oxen and more on horses. They also experimented w/new methods of rotating crops that enabled them to cultivate land more intensively than before.
297424854	A Rural Society	Agricultural surplus of early medieval Europe was sufficient to sustain political elites like lords&their retainers, but not substantial enough to support cities w/large populations of artisans, crafts workers, merchants&professionals. Europe was entirely a rural society that engaged in little commerce. Manors&local communities produced most of the manufactured goods that they needed, including textiles&heavy tools&provided the materials&the labor for construction&other large-scale projects.
297424855	Mediterranean Trade	Local markets&fairs offered opportunities for small-scale exchange, while peddlers shopped their wares from one settlement to another. Maritime trade flourished in the Mediterranean despite Muslim conquests in the region. By 100 CE, food crop that in earlier centuries had made their way throughout much of the Islamic world were beginning to take root in Mediterranean Europe. Hard durum, wheat, rice, spinach, artichokes, eggplant, lemons, limes, oranges&melons all made their way to Sicily, southern Italy&Spain b/c of European participation in the larger trading world of the eastern hemisphere.
297424856	Norse Merchant-Mariners	Most active among the the early medieval merchants in the northern seas were Norse seafarers, kinsmen of the Vikings who raided lands from eastern Europe to the Mediterranean. Norse traders followed same routes as Viking raiders&many mariners turned from commerce to plunder. Norse merchants went from ports in Russia to Ireland carrying cargoes of fish&fur from Scandinavia, honey from Poland, wheat from England, wine from France, beer from the Low Countries, &swords from Germany. Norse merchants linked western Europe w/the Islamic world. Silver transported from the Abbasid empire by Norse merchants was a principal source of bullion used for minting coins in early medieval Europe&a crucially important element of European economy.
297424857	Population	In 200 CE, before the Roman empire began to experience serious difficulties, the European population stood at about 36million, it fell over next 4 centuries to 31million in 400&26million in 600. By the end of the early middle ages, western Europe was poised to experience economic&demographic expansion that vastly increased European influence in the eastern hemisphere.
297424858	The Franks & the Church	Deep commitment to Roman Christianity became a hallmark of Frankish policy. Clovis, his successors&the Carolingians viewed themselves as protectors of the papacy. Charlemagne supported the church in Italy&worked to spread Christianity in northern lands. He maintained a school at Aachen where he assembled prominent scholars from all parts of his empire. They corrected texts, made copies of the Bible&classical latin literature&taught Christian doctrine to men preparing for careers as priests or church officials. Charlemagne ordered monasteries in his empire to provide free instruction in reading&writing. These efforts increased literacy in Latin languages&popular understanding of basic Christian doctrine.
297424859	The Spread of Christianity	Charlemagne sometimes promoted the spread of Christianity by military force. 722-804 he waged campaign against the Saxons. They resisted both the political&religious dimensions of Charlemagne's campaign. Charlemagne prevailed, Saxons acknowledged him as their political lord&replaced pagan religions w/Christianity. By 1000, Christianity had won the allegiance of most people throughout western Europe&even Nordic lands. By sponsoring the Roman church, Charlemagne helped establish Christianity as the dominant religion&cultural tradition in western Europe.
297424860	Pope Gregory I	The person most important for providing the Roman church w/its sense of direction, (590-604 CE), Gregory the Great. During late 6th century the Lombards consolidated their hold on Italian peninsula, menacing Rome&Roman church in the process. Gregory ensured survival of city&church by mobilizing local resources&organizing the defense of Rome. Gregory also asserted papal primacy, a practice that enhanced the influence of the Roman church in the lives of individuals.
297424861	The Conversion of England	Gregory strengthened the Roman church further by extending its appeal&winning new converts in western Europe. Most important of his missionary campaigns was one directed at England, recently conquered by Angles, Saxons&other Germanic peoples. He aimed efforts@the kings who ruled various regions of England, hoping that their conversion would induce their subjects to adopt Christianity. Tactic succeeded, by early 7th century Christianity had established a stable foothold in England& by 800 England was securely within the fold of Roman church.
297424862	Monastic Rules	During early days of monasticism, each community developed its own rules, procedures&priorities. Some communities demanded that their inhabitants follow extremely austere lifestyles that sapped energy of monks. Other communities didn't establish any clear expectations of their recruits, w/result that monks wasted their time or wandered aimlessly from one monastic house to the other, these haphazard conditions prevented monasteries from mounting effective Christian missions.
297424863	St. Benedict	St. Benedict of Nursia(480-547)strengthened the early monastic movement by providing it with discipline&sense of purpose. 529 St. Benedict prepared a set of regulations know as Benedict's Rule for the monastic community that he had founded at Monte Casino. The Rule didn't permit extreme asceticism but required monks to take vows to lead communal, celibate lives under the absolute direction of the abbot who supervised the monastery:poverty, chastity&obedience became prime virtues for Benedictine monks. Rule also called for them to spend time in prayer, meditation&work.At certain hours monks came together for religious services&prayer&they divided the remainder of the day into periods for study, reflection&manual labor.
297424864	St. Scholastica	St. Benedict's sister(482-543), made an adaptation of the Rule for religious women living in convents. Within a century most European monasteries&convents observed the Rule.
297424865	Monasticism & Society	European monasteries provided a variety of social services. Serves as inns for travelers&places of refuge for individuals suffering from natural or other calamities. Served as orphanages&provided medical treatment for ill&injured. Often set up schools&offered some educational services for local regions&large monasteries provided more advanced instruction for those attaining priesthood. Some monasteries had libraries where monks copied works of classical literature&philosophy. Monasteries served as a source of literate, educated&talented individuals whose secretarial&administrative services were crucial for the organization of effective gov't in early medieval Europe.

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Political Belief/Political Behaviors Flashcards

ayeisha

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312851653	attentive public	Those citizens who follow public affairs carefully.
312851654	australian ballot	A secret ballot printed by the state
312851655	balancing the ticket	Occurs when a presidential nominee chooses a vice presidential running mate who has different qualities in order to attract more votes for the ticket.
312851656	blanket primacy	a primary election in which each voter may vote for candidates from both parties
312851657	caucus	a closed political meeting
312851658	closed primacy	a primary election in which voting is limited to already registered party members
312851659	coattail	A concept allowing congressional and other candidates to ride the popularity of a leader, such as the president, especially at election time.
312851660	demographics	the statistical data of a population, esp. those showing average age, income, education, etc.
312851661	direct election	Election of an official directly by the people rather than by an intermediary group such as the Electoral College.
312851662	direct primary	a primary where voters directly select the candidates who will run for office
312851663	coattail effect	The boost that candidates may get in an election because of the popularity of candidates above them on the ballot, especially the president.
312851664	fixed terms	terms of office that have a definite length of time, e.g., two years for a member of the House.
312851665	front loading	The recent tendency of states to hold primaries early in the calendar in order to capitalize on media attention.
312851666	gender gap	Difference in political views between men and women
312851667	general election	a national or state election
312851668	hard money	Political contributions given to a party, candidate, or interest group that are limited in amount and fully disclosed.
312851669	ideology	imaginary or visionary theorization
312851670	incumbent	the official who holds an office
312851671	independent leaners	tend to vote for candidates of one particular party
312851672	pure independents	have no consistent pattern of party voting
312851673	issue advocacy ads	ads that focus on issues and do not explicitly encourage citizens to vote for a certain candidate.
312851674	open primary	a primary in which any registered voter can vote (but must vote for candidates of only one party)
312851675	party identification	An informal and subjective affiliation with a political party that most people acquire in childhood.
312851676	party platform	A political party's statement of its goals and policies for the next four years
312851677	political culture	an overall set of values widely shared within a society
312851678	political efficiency	one's own influence or effectiveness on politics
312851679	political socialization	the process by which people gain their political attitudes and opinions
312851680	realigning elections	Elections that may lead to a basic shift in the party identification of the electorate.
312851681	safe seat	An elected office that is predictably won by one party or the other, so the success of that party's candidate is almost taken for granted.
312851682	single member district system	System in which the people elect one representative per district. With a winner-take-all rule, this system strengthens the two major parties and weakens minor parties.
312851683	soft money	Money raised in unlimited amounts by political parties for party-building purposes. Now largely illegal except for limited contributions to state or local parties for voter registration and get-out-the-vote efforts.
312851684	solid south	Term applied to the one-party (Democrat) system of the South following the Civil War. For 100 years after the Civil War, the South voted Democrat in every presidential election.
312851685	split ticket voting	voting for candidates of different parties for different offices at the same election
312851686	straight ticket voting	the practice of voting for candidates of only one party in an election
312851687	suffrage	the right to vote
312851688	super delegate	A delegate to the Democratic National Convention who is eligible to attend because he or she is an elected party official. The Democrats reserve a specific set of delegate slots for party officials.
312851689	super tuesday	A Tuesday in early March in which many presidential primaries, particularly in the South, are held.
312851690	swing state	A state that does not consistently vote either Democratic or Republican in presidential elections.

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AP US History Chapter 7: The New Republic and Federalist Era Flashcards

Created by Matthew Piccolella

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453854325	Foreign Problems	relations between Europe were troubled, States failed to adhere to terms of Treaty of Paris with Loyalists, weak US government had no ability to stop Britain from placing restrictions on trade and maintaining military outposts in west
453854326	Economic Weaknesses	reduced foreign trade and limited credit due to nonpayment of war debts led to economic depression, worthless paper money was printed by may states, treated one another with suspicion, placed tariffs on movement of goods, etc.
453854327	First Capitol	New York, then Phili
453854328	Delegates	55 white male delegates, most were college-educated and relatively young, far wealthier than majority, law and politics
453854329	Hamilton's Report on Public Credit	evaluated Revolutionary War debt; $54 million
453854330	James Madison	father of the Constitution
453854331	Cause of the formation of the first Navy	Adams; the undeclared war with France
453854332	Jay Treaty highlights	no war; British supposed to leave the US
453854333	Alexander Hamilton	Delegate to the Constitutional Convention and leader of the Federalists; first secretary of the treasury.
453854334	Gabriel Prosser	An African-American preacher who tried to lead a slave rebellion, but it was discovered and crushed. Leader of the Gabriel Rebellion in Virginia.
453854335	Foreign minister of France who was a part of the XYZ Affair	Charles de Talleyland
453854336	Year Bill of Rights was ratified	1791
453854337	Number of Electoral votes needed to win Presidency and how many are available	270 needed; 580 available
453854338	Senate	upper house of the legislature, each state elects two. 6 year term.
453854339	House of Representatives	lower house of congress based on state population. 25 years old, 7 year citizen, resident of the district
453854340	Presidential Powers	president would have the power to veto acts of Congress, four years for each term, no limit on number of terms, wouldn't be elected directly by people, instead by electoral college
453854341	Electoral College System	instituted because delegates at Philadelphia feared too much democracy might lead to mob rule, each state would get a number of electors equal to the number of senators and representatives
453854342	Ratification	September 17 1787 after 17 weeks a version was approved to submit to states, only 9 out of 13 would be required, popularly elected conventions to debate and vote
453854345	Federalist Leaders	Washington, Adams, Franklin, Hamilton
453854348	Federalist Papers	series of highly persuasive essays written by Madison, Hamilton, and Jay, 85 essays, presented cogent reasons for the practicality of the constitution
453854349	Judiciary Act of 1789	allowed Pres to set up a court system (Supreme Court). Appointed a Chief Justice and five associate Justice (the only court mentioned in the Constitution). 3 from the North, 3 from the South
453854350	Hamilton's opinions on who can run government	The "rich, well-born, and able."
453854351	Arguments for a Bill of Rights	America had fought war to escape tyranny of Britain, adding bill would protect government from tyranically ruling
453854352	Argument against Bill of Rights	since members of Congress were elected by people, it was unnecessary, better to assume all rights guaranteed
453854353	First Amendment	freedom of religion, speech, press, assembly, and petition, Congress cannot favor one religion over another
453854354	Second Amendment	right to bear arms
453854355	Third Amendment	people cannot be required to quarter soldiers
453854356	Fourth Amendment	unreasonable search and seizures
453854357	Fifth Amendment	no individual may be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process, double jeopardy
453854358	Sixth Amendment	anyone accused of a crime has the right to a speedy and public trial, right to call and question witnesses
453854359	Seventh Amendment	citizens have right to trial by jury in civil cases
453854360	Eighth Amendment	persons accused of crimes are protected against excessive bails and cruel and unusual punishment
453854361	Ninth Amendment	any rights not specified mentioned are also guaranteed
453854362	Tenth Amendment	all powers not delegated to federal go to states
453854363	Election of Washington	March 1789 first session of Congress began, Washington was unanimous first choice for president, took office on April 30 1789
453854364	Executive Departments	Washington's principal task was to organize new departments, authorized by Constitution to do so, cabinet was formed, began practice of having meetings for obtaining advice, etc.
453854365	Secretary of State	Thomas Jefferson
453854366	Secretary of War	Henry Knox
453854367	Secretary of Treasury	Alexander Hamilton
453854368	Attorney General	Edmund Randolph
453854369	Federal Court System	only court mentioned was Supreme Court, Congress was given power to create lower courts
453854370	Judiciary Act of 1789	established a Supreme Court with one chief justice and five associate justices, highest court was empowered to rule on constitutionality of state courts
453854371	Hamilton's Financial Program	pay off the national debt at face value and have federal government assume debts, protects nation's "infant" industries and collect revenues by imposing tariffs, create a national bank for depositing government funds and for printing banknotes that would provide basis for US currency
453854372	Opposition to Hamilton	Anti-Federalists, believed the states would lose power, Jefferson led a faction against Hamilton's plan
453854373	Debt	Virginia agreed to government assuming debt as long as capital would be near border
453854374	Excise Taxes	Hamilton passed excise taxes on whiskey to raise the rest of the revenue
453854375	National Bank	Hamilton took elastic clause to establish the bank, US was major shareholder, government could print currency and use federal deposits to stimulate business
453854376	Necessary and Proper Clause	Congress was authorized to do whatever it needed to to carry out its enumerated powers
453854377	French Revolution	Americans supported French aspirations to aspire a republic, but were horrified by violence, French alliance was in effect, US needed to support them in defensive war against British
453854378	Proclamation of Neutrality	1793 Washington believed nation was not strong enough to engage in foreign war, Jefferson resigned in response
453854379	Citizen Genet	French minister broke all rules by appealing directly to the American people to support the French cause, Jefferson approved of Washington's appeal to French government to remove him, chose to remain in the US
453854380	Jay Treaty 1794	Britain agreed to evacuate its posts on the US western frontier, said nothing about seizures of American ships, angered American supporters of France, did maintain neutrality
453854381	Pinckney, San Lorenzo Treaty 1795	US may be drawing closer to Britain, Spain had to consolidate holdings in North America, treaty agreed to open lower Mississippi River and New Orleans to US trade, right of deposit was given to transfer cargoes without paying duties, 31st parallel was border with Florida
453854382	Native Americans	settlers crossing the Alleghenies encroached on lands, Americans saw evidence that British were aiding them with arms and encouraging them to attack
453854383	New bonds, Perpetual Debt	Hamilton's policy of paying off the Rev War debt
453854384	Names for taxes	Duties, Tariff, Import tax, Customs
453854385	Whiskey Rebellion 1794	farmers in Pennsylvania refused to pay excise tax, they attacked revenue collectors, Washington mobilized militiamen and placed them under Hamilton, westerners resented this action, Jefferson was chief critic, showed a strong government
453854386	20 years	The amount of time the Bank of United States (BUS) was chartered
453854387	Default	failure to pay money that is due
453854388	Origins of Political Parties	Federalist Party supported Hamilton, Republican Party supported Jefferson, French Revolution divided the parties
453854389	Federalist Era	1790s era dominated by policies of Hamilton. Leaders were Alexander Hamilton and John Adams
453854391	Federalist View of Constitution	loose interpretation, strong central government
453854392	Federalists	pro-British. large peacetime army and navy. aid business, national bank, tariffs. Did not favor French Revolution. Northern businessman, large landowners
453854396	Republican Leaders	Thomas Jefferson, James Madison. strict interpretation of Constitution, weaker central government
453854398	Republicans	pro-French Revolution. small peacetime army and Navy. favor agriculture, no national bank, opposed tariffs. No industries or big cities. skilled workers, small farmers, plantation owners, westerners
453854402	Washington's Farewell Address	warned Americans not to get involved in European affairs, against US "permanent alliances", not to form political parties, to avoid sectionalism, two term precedent was set
453854403	John Adams' Presidency	won by just 3 electoral votes, Jefferson was his vice president
453854404	12th Amendment	established way to elect VP 1804
453854405	XYZ Affair	Adams sent US delegation to Paris to negotiate, three French ministers requested bribes to enter into negotiations, American delegates refused, "millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute", led to war calls, Adams resisted
453854406	Naturalization Act	increased from 5 to 14 the number of years required for immigrants to qualify for US citizenship because most immigrants voted Democratic-Republican
453854407	Alien Acts	authorized the president to deport any aliens considered dangerous and to detain any enemy aliens in a time of war
453854408	Sedition Act	made it illegal for newspaper editors to criticize either the president or Congress and imposed heavy penalties
453854409	Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions	states had entered into a "compact" in forming the national government, and therefore if any act of the federal government broke the compact, a state could nullify the federal law
453854410	Election of 1800	Federalists lost popularity during Adams, people disliked Alien and Sedition Acts, complained of new taxes, Aaron Burr and Jefferson received same number of electoral ballots, House decided on Jefferson
453854411	Revolution of 1800	the change from Federalist control to Democratic-Republican control, passing of power from one political party to another, proved US would endure struggles placed on it
453854412	Washington's Farewell Speech	Warned against political parties, and to stay away from permanent foreign alliances.

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