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100 Most Common SAT Words
| 480842880 | abbreviate | shorten, abridge | |
| 480842881 | abstinence | act of refraining from | |
| 480842882 | adulation | high praise | |
| 480842883 | adversity | misfortune | |
| 480842884 | aesthetic | pertaining to beauty | |
| 480842885 | amicable | agreeable | |
| 480842886 | anachronistic | out-of-date | |
| 480842887 | anecdote | short account of event | |
| 480842888 | anonymous | nameless | |
| 480842889 | antagonist | opponent | |
| 480842890 | arid | extremely dry | |
| 480842891 | assiduous | hard-working | |
| 480842892 | asylum | sanctuary | |
| 480842893 | benevolent | friendly, helpful | |
| 480842894 | camaraderie | trust among friends | |
| 480842895 | censure | to criticize harshly | |
| 480842896 | circuitous | indirect, roundabout | |
| 480842897 | clairvoyant | able to see the future | |
| 480842898 | collaborate | to work together | |
| 480842899 | compassion | sympathy, mercy | |
| 480842900 | compromise | to settle differences | |
| 480842901 | condescending | patronizing | |
| 480842902 | conditional | provisional, contingent | |
| 480842903 | conformist | follower of customs | |
| 480842904 | congregation | crowd of people | |
| 480842905 | convergence | joining of parts | |
| 480842906 | deleterious | harmful | |
| 480842907 | demagogue | rabble-rousing leader | |
| 480842908 | digression | straying from main point | |
| 480842909 | diligent | hard-working | |
| 480842910 | discredit | dishonor, disgrace | |
| 480842911 | disdain | to regard with scorn | |
| 480842912 | divergent | variant, moving apart | |
| 480842913 | empathy | sharing of feelings | |
| 480842914 | emulate | follow an example | |
| 480842915 | enervating | tiring, weakening | |
| 480842916 | enhance | improve, augment | |
| 480842917 | ephemeral | momentary, fleeting | |
| 480842918 | evanescent | short-lived, as an image | |
| 480842919 | exasperation | irritation, frustration | |
| 480842920 | exemplary | outstanding | |
| 480842921 | extenuating | guilt diminishing | |
| 480842922 | florid | flushed, ornate | |
| 480842923 | fortuitous | lucky | |
| 480842924 | frugal | thrifty | |
| 480842925 | hackneyed | overused, cliched | |
| 480842926 | haughty | arrogant, condescending | |
| 480842927 | hedonist | pleasure seeker | |
| 480842928 | hypothesis | theory requiring proof | |
| 480842929 | impetuous | rash, impulsive | |
| 480842930 | impute | to attribute to someone | |
| 480842931 | incompatible | unable to work together | |
| 480842932 | inconsequential | trivial | |
| 480842933 | inevitable | unavoidable, certain | |
| 480842934 | integrity | honesty, decency | |
| 480842935 | intrepid | fearless, adventurous | |
| 480842936 | intuitive | instinctive, untaught | |
| 480842937 | jubilation | joy, exultation | |
| 480842938 | lobbyist | persuader of legislators | |
| 480842939 | longevity | long life | |
| 480842940 | mundane | ordinary, common | |
| 480842941 | nonchalant | calm, casual | |
| 480842942 | novice | beginner | |
| 480842943 | opulent | wealthy | |
| 480842944 | orator | speaker | |
| 480842945 | ostentatious | displaying wealth | |
| 480842946 | parched | dried up | |
| 480842947 | perfidious | disloyal | |
| 480842948 | precocious | talented beyond one's age | |
| 480842949 | pretentious | pompous, self-important | |
| 480842950 | procrastinate | to delay unnecessarily | |
| 480842951 | prosaic | run-of-the-mill | |
| 480842952 | prosperity | wealth, success | |
| 480842953 | provocative | inflammatory | |
| 480842954 | prudent | wise, careful, cautious | |
| 480842955 | querulous | irritable | |
| 480842956 | rancorous | hateful | |
| 480842957 | reclusive | withdrawn, hermit-like | |
| 480842958 | reconciliation | agreement after a quarrel | |
| 480842959 | renovation | state of being renewed | |
| 480842960 | resilient | quick to recover | |
| 480842961 | restrained | controlled, restricted | |
| 480842962 | reverence | profound respect | |
| 480842963 | sagacity | wisdom | |
| 480842964 | scrutinize | to observe carefully | |
| 480842965 | spontaneity | impulsive action | |
| 480842966 | spurious | phony, false | |
| 480842967 | submissive | meek | |
| 480842968 | substantiate | to verify, confirm | |
| 480842969 | subtle | elusive, sly, ambiguous | |
| 480842970 | superficial | lacking in depth | |
| 480842971 | superfluous | more than enough | |
| 480842972 | suppress | to end an activity | |
| 480842973 | surreptitious | secret, stealthy | |
| 480842974 | tactful | diplomatic, polite | |
| 480842975 | tenacious | persistent, resolute | |
| 480842976 | transient | temporary, fleeting | |
| 480842977 | venerable | respectable due to age | |
| 480842978 | vindicate | to clear from blame | |
| 480842979 | wary | watchful, alert |
Chapter 9 grade-makers/terms -- The American Pageant.
| 88727910 | Abigail Adams | Wife of John Adams. During the Revolutionary War, she wrote letters to her husband describing life on the homefront. She urged her husband to remember America's women in the new government he was helping to create. | |
| 88727911 | Daniel Shays | Head of Shay's Rebellion; he and several other angry farmers violently protested against debtor's jail; eventually crushed; aided in the creation of constitution because land owners now wanted to preserve what was theirs from "mobocracy". | |
| 88727912 | Alexander Hamilton | 1789-1795; First Secretary of the Treasury. He advocated creation of a national bank, assumption of state debts by the federal government, and a tariff system to pay off the national debt. | |
| 88727913 | James Madison | 4th President of the United States (member of the Continental Congress and rapporteur at the Constitutional Convention in 1776; helped frame the Bill of Rights (1751-1836)). | |
| 88727914 | Primogeniture | seniority by birth; state of being the first-born child; right of the eldest child (to inherit the entire property of one or both parents). | |
| 88727915 | Federation | the act of constituting a political unity out of a number of separate states or colonies or provinces so that each member retains the management of its internal affairs. | |
| 88727916 | Checks and Balances | A system that allows each branch of government to limit the powers of the other branches in order to prevent abuse of power | |
| 88727917 | Sovereignty | royal authority (the dominion of a monarch). | |
| 88727918 | "Mobocracy" | n. Lawless control of public affairs by the mob or populace. | |
| 88727919 | Consent of The Governed | agreement by the people of a nation to subject themselves to the authority to a government. Natural rights philosophers, such as John Locke, believe that any legitimate government must draw its authority from the consent of the governed. | |
| 88727920 | Republicanism | the political orientation of those who hold that a republic is the best form of government | |
| 88727921 | States' Rights | According to the compact theory of the Union the states retained all powers not specifically delegated to the central government by the Constitution. | |
| 88727922 | Popular Sovereignty | The concept that political power rests with the people who can create, alter, and abolish government. People express themselves through voting and free participation in government | |
| 88727923 | Confederation | a joining of several groups for a common purpose. | |
| 88727924 | Anarchy | a state of lawlessness and disorder (usually resulting from a failure of government) | |
| 88727925 | Society of the Cincinnati | A society established by former officers of the Revolutionary war as a sort of aristocracy in which traditionalism and social status was important. Thomas Jefferson and other civilians thought that this movement threatened the newly formed republic and feared it could turn into an aristocracy so they worked to disband it. This was showed that nothing would stand in the way of a democratic government. This was crucial as this is the point when most revolutions fail, but the determination from Jefferson ceased this early threat. (1783) | |
| 88727926 | "Great Compromise" | Compromise made by Constitutional Convention in which states would have equal representation in one house of the legislature and representation based on population in the other house. | |
| 88727927 | Articles of Confederation | a written agreement ratified in 1781 by the thirteen original states (it provided a legal symbol of their union by gave the central government no coercive power over the states or their citizens). | |
| 88727928 | Land Ordinance | Authorized surveys and the division of public lands in the western part of the country. Specified sizes of lots and acreages. 1785. | |
| 88727929 | "Three fifths Compromise" | the agreement by which the number of each state's representatives in Congress would be based on a count of all the free people plus three-fifths of the slaves. | |
| 88727930 | Northwest Ordinance | Enacted in 1787, it is considered one of the most significant achievements of the Articles of Confederation. It established a system for setting up governments in the western territories so they could eventually join the Union on an equal footing with the original 13 states. | |
| 88727931 | Anti-federalists | They opposed the ratification of the Constitution because it gave more power to the federal government and less to the states, and because it did not ensure individual rights. Many wanted to keep the Articles of Confederation. The Anti-federalists were instrumental in obtaining passage of the Bill of Rights as a prerequisite to ratification of the Constitution in several states. After the ratification of the Constitution, the Anti-federalists regrouped as the Democratic-Republican (or simply Republican) party. | |
| 88727932 | Shay's Rebellion | this conflict in Massachusetts caused many to criticize the Articles of Confederation and admit the weak central government was not working; uprising led by Daniel Shays in an effort to prevent courts from foreclosing on the farms of those who could not pay the taxes (1786). | |
| 88727933 | Federalists | Supporters of the Constitution that were led by Alexander Hamilton and John Adams. They firmly believed the national government should be strong. They didn't want the Bill of Rights because they felt citizens' rights were already well protected by the Constitution. | |
| 88727934 | "large state plan" | Plan proposed by Virginia for representation in both houses should be based on population. Bicameral. | |
| 88727935 | Constitution of the United States | Written at the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia in 1787 and subsequently ratified by the original thirteen states, The foundation of our country's national government; was drafted in Philadelphia in 1787; the Constitution establishes a government with direct authority over all citizens, it defines the powers of the national government, and it establishes protection for the rights of states and of every individual. | |
| 88727936 | The Federalist | Essays promoting ratification of the Constitution, published anonymously by Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison in 1787 and 1788. | |
| 88727937 | "Bundle of Compromises" | This referred to the fact that the Constitution was trying to please everybody. |
This flash card set includes the vocabulary words and definitions from Chp 7: Membrane Structure and Function (Biology 8E by Campbell et al, 2008).
| 41457411 | selective permeability | property of the plasma membrane that allows some substances to cross it more easily than others | |
| 41457412 | amphipathic | a molecule having both a hydrophilic region and a hydrophobic region | |
| 41457413 | fluid mosaic model | describes how a plasma membrane is a fluid structure with a variety of proteins embedded or attached to a double layer of phospholipids | |
| 41457414 | integral protein | a transmembrane protein that penetrates the hydrophobic core of the lipid bilayer | |
| 41457415 | peripheral protein | a type of membrane protein that is not embedded in the lipid bilayer at all, but rather, loosely bound to the surface of the membrane | |
| 41457416 | glycolipid | short, branched chains of fewer than 15 sugar units covalently bonded to a lipid in the plasma membrane | |
| 41457417 | glycoprotein | short, branched chains of sugar units covalently bonded to a protein in the plasma membrane | |
| 41457418 | transport protein | a channel or carrier protein that allows hydrophilic substances through the plasma membrane | |
| 41457419 | aquaporin | a channel protein that transports water molecules through the plasma membrane | |
| 41457420 | diffusion | the spontaneous movement of a substance down its concentration gradient, from a region where it is more concentrated to a region where it is less concentrated | |
| 41457421 | concentration gradient | the region along which the density of a chemical substance increases or decreases | |
| 41457422 | passive transport | the diffusion of a substance across a biological membrane where the cell does not have to expend energy to make it happen | |
| 41457423 | osmosis | the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane | |
| 41457424 | tonicity | the ability of a solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water | |
| 41457425 | isotonic | having the same solute concentration as another solution, thus having no effect on passage of water into or out of the cell | |
| 41457426 | hypertonic | in comparing two solutions, referring to the one with a greater solute concentration, which, when surrounding a cell, will cause the cell to lose water | |
| 41457427 | hypotonic | in comparing two solutions, referring to the one with a lower solute concentration, which, when surrounding a cell, will cause the cell to take up water | |
| 41457428 | osmoregulation | control of solute concentrations and water balance by a cell or organism | |
| 41457429 | turgid | swollen, or distended, as in plant cells | |
| 41457430 | flaccid | lacking in stiffness or firmness, as in plant cells; limp | |
| 41457431 | plasmolysis | a phenomenon in walled cells in which the cytoplasm shrivels and the plasma membrane pulls away from the cell wall | |
| 41457432 | facilitated diffusion | the passive diffusion of polar molecules and ions through the plasma membrane with the help of transport proteins | |
| 41457433 | ion channel | a transmembrane protein that allows a specific ion to flow across the cell membrane down its concentration gradient | |
| 41457434 | gated channel | a transmembrane protein in a cell membrane that opens or closes in response to a particular stimulus | |
| 41457435 | active transport | the movement of a substance across a cell membrane, with an expenditure of energy, against its concentration or electrochemical gradient | |
| 41457436 | sodium-potassium pump | a transport protein in the plasma membrane of animal cells that actively transports sodium out of the cell and potassium into the cell | |
| 41457437 | membrane potential | the charge difference between a cell's cytosol and the extracellular fluid, due to the differential distribution of ions | |
| 41457438 | electrochemical gradient | the diffusion gradient of an ion, which is affected by both the concentration difference of the ion across a membrane and its tendency to move relative to the membrane potential | |
| 41457439 | electrogenic pump | an ion transport protein that generates voltage across a membrane | |
| 41457440 | proton pump | an active transport protein in a cell membrane that uses ATP to transport hydrogen ions out of a cell against their concentration gradient, generating a membrane potential in the process | |
| 41457441 | cotransport | the coupling of the "downhill" diffusion of one substance to the "uphill" transport of another against its own concentration gradient | |
| 41457442 | exocytosis | the cellular secretion of biological molecules by the fusion of vesicles containing them with the plasma membrane | |
| 41457443 | endocytosis | cellular uptake of biological molecules and particulate matter via formation of new vesicles from the plasma membrane | |
| 41457444 | phagocytosis | a type of endocytosis in which large particulate substances are taken up by a cell | |
| 41457445 | pinocytosis | a type of endocytosis in which the cell ingests extracellular fluid and its dissolved solutes | |
| 41457446 | receptor-mediated endocytosis | the movement of specific molecules into a cell by the inward budding of membranous vesicles containing proteins with receptor sites specific to the molecules being taken in; enables a cell to acquire bulk quantities of specific substances | |
| 41457447 | ligand | a molecule that binds specifically to another molecule, usually a larger one |
| 209337334 | Abolitionism | a movement to end slavery (Spielvogel WHMT 2e p. 384) | |
| 209413750 | Bill of Rights | American written statement of fundamental rights and privileges for an individual. (Spielvogel WHMT 2e p. 373) | |
| 209414822 | British North American Act | Passed by Parliament in 1867 to establish a Canadian nation with its own constitution. (Spielvogel WHMT 2e p. 385) | |
| 203043668 | Capital | money available for investment (Spielvogel WHMT 2e p. 364) | |
| 209413749 | Congress of Vienna | Peace Treaty designed by heads of European powers in 1814 (England, Austria, Prussia, Russia) which rearranged territories after Napoleon's defeat to form a new balance of power. (Spielvogel WHMT 2e p. 371) | |
| 209337326 | Conservatism | a political philosophy based on tradition and social stability, favoring obedience to political authority and organized religion (Spielvogel WHMT 2e p. 372) | |
| 209334510 | Cottage Industry | a method of production in which tasks are done by individuals in their rural homes (Spielvogel WHMT 2e p. 364) | |
| 209337333 | Emancipation | the act of setting free (Spielvogel WHMT 2e p. 383) | |
| 203043669 | Entrepreneur | a person interested in finding new business opportunities and new ways to make profits (Spielvogel WHMT 2e p. 364) | |
| 209413752 | German Confederation | Thirty-eight independent German states recognized by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 of which Austria and Prussia had the greatest powers. (Spielvogel WHMT 2e p. 375) | |
| 209334512 | Industrial Capitalism | an economic system based on industrial production or manufacturing (Spielvogel WHMT 2e p. 368) | |
| 209413747 | James Watt | Scottish engineer who, in 1782, made changes to the steam engine which enabled it to drive machinery to spin cotton, thus improving production. (Spielvogel WHMT 2e p. 364) | |
| 209337331 | Kaiser | German for caesar, the title of the emperors of the Second German Empire (Spielvogel WHMT 2e p. 381) | |
| 209337328 | Liberalism | a political philosophy originally based largely on Enlightenment principles, holding that people should be as free as possible from government restraint and that civil liberties-the basic rights of all people-should be protected (Spielvogel WHMT 2e p. 373) | |
| 209413751 | Louis-Napoleon | Elected president of France's Second Republic in 1848 after the French Revolution; the nephew of Napoleon. (Spielvogel WHMT 2e p. 375) | |
| 209337330 | Militarism | reliance on military strength (Spielvogel WHMT 2e p. 380) | |
| 209413753 | Otto von Bismarck | Prussian prime minister in 1860's who governed Prussia without Parliament's approval and forced war first with the Austrians and then the French (Franco-Prussian War in 1870) where France was forced to relinquish Alsace and Lorraine. Prussia was then the strongest power in Europe. (Spielvogel WHMT 2e p. 380) | |
| 209337332 | Plebiscite | a popular vote (Spielvogel WHMT 2e p. 382) | |
| 209337327 | Principle of Intervention | idea that great powers have the right to send armies into countries where there are revolutions to restore legitimate governments (Spielvogel WHMT 2e p. 373) | |
| 209334511 | Puddling | process in which coke derived from coal is used to burn away impurities in crude iron to produce high quality iron (Spielvogel WHMT 2e p. 365) | |
| 209413754 | Queen Victoria | British queen from 1837-1901 with the longest reign in English history who helped to stabilize their economy with continued improvements as a result of the Industrial Revolution. In 1876, she also assumed the title of Empress of India. (Spielvogel WHMT 2e p. 382) | |
| 209413748 | Robert Fulton | American inventor who built the first paddle-wheel steamboat in 1807. (Spielvogel WHMT 2e p. 366) | |
| 209337335 | Secede | withdraw (Spielvogel WHMT 2e p. 385) | |
| 209334513 | Socialism | a system in which society, usually in the form of the government, owns and controls the means of production (Spielvogel WHMT 2e p. 370) | |
| 209337329 | Universal Male Suffrage | the right of all males to vote in elections (Spielvogel WHMT 2e p. 374) |
| 53470754 | conquistador | conqueror | |
| 53470755 | immunity | resistance, usually to a disease | |
| 53470756 | Hernan Cortes | Spanish conquistador who took over the Aztecs | |
| 53470757 | Tenochtitlan | capital city of the Aztec empire | |
| 53470758 | Malinche | Inidan woman who served as Cortes's translator and advisor | |
| 53470759 | alliance | formal agreement betwen two or more nations | |
| 53470760 | viceroy | represnetative who ruled one of Spain's provinces in the Americas in the king's name | |
| 53470761 | encomiendas | the right to demand labor or tribute from Native Americans in a particular area | |
| 53470762 | Bartolome de Las Casas | priest who condemned the evils of the encomiendo system | |
| 53470763 | peon | worker forced to labor for a landlord in order to pay off a debt | |
| 53470764 | peninsulares | members of the highest class in Spains's colonies in the Americas, people born in Spain | |
| 53470765 | creoles | American-born decendants of Spanish settlers | |
| 53470766 | mestizos | people of Native American and European descent | |
| 53470767 | mulattoes | people of African and European descent | |
| 53470768 | privateer | pirate that operated with the approval of European governements | |
| 53470769 | New France | French claims in Canada | |
| 53470770 | revenue | income | |
| 53470771 | Pilgrims | English Protestants who rejected the Church of England | |
| 53470772 | compact | an agreement among people | |
| 53470773 | French and Indian war | war in 1754 between Britain and France | |
| 53470774 | Treaty of Paris | treaty that officially ended Seven Year's war and ensured British dominance in North America | |
| 53470775 | Olaudan Equiano | enslaved African who shared horrors of slave trade | |
| 53470776 | triangular trade | colonial trade routes among Europe and its colonies, the West Indies, and Africa in which goods were exchanged for slaves | |
| 53470777 | Middle Passage | leg of the triangular trade route on which slaves were transported from Africa to the Americas | |
| 53470778 | mutiny | revolts during the Middle Passage | |
| 53470779 | Columbian Exchange | global exchange of goods, ideas, plants, animals, and disease that beagn with Columbus' exploration of the Americas | |
| 53470780 | inflation | rise in prices that is linked to a sharp increase in the amount of money availible | |
| 53470781 | Price Revolution | period in European history when prices grew rapidly | |
| 53470782 | captialism | economic system in which most businesses are owned privately | |
| 53470783 | entrepreneurs | people who take on financial risk to make profits | |
| 53470784 | mercantilism | economic policy aimed at strengthening national economy | |
| 53470785 | guild | closed system of people who decided the standards of quality |
Vocabulary for Chapter 1, AP World History
| 432917370 | Hunting and Gathering | Means of obtaining sustenance by humans before the mastery of sedentary agriculture; normally typical of band social organizations. | |
| 432917371 | Civilization | Societies with reliance on sedentary agriculture, ability to produce food surpluses, and existence of nonfarming elites, along with merchant and manufacturing groups. | |
| 432917372 | Paleolithic | The Old Stone Age, ending in 12,000 B.C.E.; characterized by use of evolving stone tools and hunting and gathering for sustenance. | |
| 432917373 | Neolithic | The New Stone Age, between 8,000 and 5,000 B.C.E; the period in which adaptation of sedentary agriculture occured; domestication of plants and animals accomplished. | |
| 432917374 | Nomads | Cattle/Sheep herding societies normally found on the outskirts of civilized societies; commonly referred to as "barbarians" by civilized societies. | |
| 432917375 | "Savages" | Societies engaged in either hunting and gathering for sustenance or in migratory cultivation; not as socially structured or specialized as civilized/nomadic societies. | |
| 432917376 | Culture | Combination of ideas, objects, and patterns of behaviors that result from human social interaction. | |
| 432917377 | Homo sapiens | The species of humanity that emerged as most successful at the end of the Paleolithic. | |
| 432917378 | Neanderthals | Species of genus homo that disappeared at the end of the Paleolithic. | |
| 432917379 | Band | A level of social organization normally consisting of between 20 and 30 people; nomadic hunters and gatherers; labor divided on a gender basis. | |
| 432917380 | Agrarian Revolution | Occured between 8,000 and 5,000 B.C.E.; transition from hunting and gathering to sedentary agriculture. | |
| 432917381 | Natufian Complex | Pre-agricultural culture; located in present-day Israel, Jordan, and Lebanon; practiced collection of wild barley and wheat to supplement game; large settlement sites. | |
| 432917382 | Matrilocal | A culture in which young men go live with the bride's family upon marriage. | |
| 432917383 | Matrilineal | Family descent and inheritance traced through the female line. | |
| 432917384 | Pastoralism | A nomadic agricultural lifestyle based on herding domesticated animals; tended to produce independent people capable of challenging to sedentary agricultural societies. | |
| 432917385 | Mesopotamia | Literally translates as "between the rivers"; the civilization that arose in the alluvial plain of the Tigres-Euphrates river valleys. | |
| 432917386 | Potter's Wheel | A technological advance in pottery making; invented about 6,000 B.C.E; encouraged faster and higher quality ceramic pottery products. | |
| 432917387 | Sumerians | People who migrated into Mesopotamia about 4,000 B.C.E; created the first civilization within region; organized area into city-states. | |
| 432917388 | Cuneiform | A form of writing developed by the Sumerians using a wedge shaped stylus and clay tablets. | |
| 432917389 | City-State | A form of political organization typical of Mesopotamian civilization; consisted of agricultural hinterlands ruled by an urban based king. | |
| 432917390 | Yahweh | The single god of the Hebrews; constructed a convenant with Jews as his chosen people. | |
| 432917391 | Monotheism | The exclusive worship of one god; introduced by the Jews into Middle Eastern civilizations. | |
| 432917392 | Epic of Gilgamesh | The first literary epic; written down in about 2,000 B.C.E; introduced the story of the Great Flood. | |
| 432917393 | Ziggurats | Massive towers usually associated with Mesopotamian temple connections. | |
| 432917394 | Animism | A religious outlook that recognizes gods in many aspects of nature and appeases them in order to help control and explain nature; typical of Mesopotamian religions. | |
| 432917395 | Sargon I of Akkad | Ruler of city-state Akkad; established the first empire in Mesopotamian civilization in about 2,400 B.C.E. | |
| 432917396 | Babylonian Empire | Unified all of Mesopotamia in about 1,800 B.C.E.; collapsed because of foreign invasion in about 1,600 B.C.E. | |
| 432917397 | Hammurabi | The most important Babylonian ruler; responsible for codification of the law. | |
| 432917398 | Aknenaton | Egyptian pharoh of the New Kingdom; attempted to establish monotheistic religion in replacement of the traditional Egyptian pantheon of gods. | |
| 432917399 | Pyramids | Monumental architecture typical of Old Kingdom Egypt; used as burial sites for pharohs. | |
| 432917400 | Mummification | Act of preserving the bodies of the dead; practiced in Egypt to preserve the body for use in the afterlife. | |
| 432917401 | Hieroglyphs | Form of writing developed in ancient Egypt; more practical than Sumerian cuneiform (the Mesopotamians). | |
| 432917402 | Patriarchal | Societies in which women defer to men; societies run by men and based upon the assumption that men naturally controlled political, economic, and cultural life. | |
| 432917403 | Kush | African state that developed along the upper reaches of the Nile in about 1,000 B.C.E.; conquered Egypt and ruled it for several centuries. | |
| 432917404 | Minoans | A civilizaiton that developed on Crete in about 1,600 B.C.E.; capital at the palace complex of Knossos. | |
| 432917405 | Mycenae | The first civilization to emerge on the Greek mainland; destroyed in about 1,000 B.C.E. | |
| 432917406 | Phoenicians | Seafaring civilization located on the shores of the eastern Mediterranean; established colonies throughout the Mediterranean. | |
| 432917407 | Hittities | An Indo-European people who entered Mesopotamia in about 1,750 B.C.E.; destroyed the Babylonian Empire; swept away in about 1,200 B.C.E. | |
| 432917408 | Huanghe or Yellow River Basin | Site of the development of sedentary agriculture in China. | |
| 432917409 | Mesoamerica | Mexico and Central America; along with Peru, site of development of sedentary agriculture in the western hemisphere. | |
| 432917410 | Jericho | Early walled urban culture based on sedentary agriculture; located in modern Israel-occupied West Bank near Jordan River. | |
| 432917411 | Catal Huyuk | Early urban culture based on sedentary agriculture; located in modern southern Turkey; larger in population than Jericho and had a greater degree of social structure. | |
| 432917412 | Bronze Age | From 4,000 to 3,000 B.C.E.; increased use of plow and metalworking; development of wheeled vehicles and writing. |
Created by Matthew Piccolella
| 353397957 | Antebellum Period | the period before the Civil War, diverse group of reformers committed themselves to causes like public schools, treatment of mentally ill, controlling sale of alcohol, equal right to women, abolishing slavery | |
| 353397958 | Sources of Reform | Puritan sense of mission, Enlightenment belief in human goodness and perfectibility, politics of Jacksonian democracy, changing relationships among men and women | |
| 353397959 | Rationalism | belief in human reason, religious idea that had been prominent during Enlightenment and Revolution | |
| 353397960 | Calvinism | teachings of original sin and predestination, had been rejected by more liberal doctrines | |
| 353397961 | Second Great Awakening | began among educated people like Timothy Dwight, changed to center around the audience, easily understood by the uneducated, offered opportunity of salvation for all, caused new divisions in society, affected all sections of the country, only Mass to Ohio did it play a large role | |
| 353397962 | Reverend Timothy Dwight | president of Yale College, led campus revivals that motivated many young men to become evangelical preachers | |
| 353397963 | Charles G. Finney | started a series of revivals in upstate New York, appealed to people's emotions and fear of damnation and persuaded thousands to publicly declare their faith, preached all were free to be saved with hard work and faith | |
| 353397964 | Burned-Over District | western New York, characterized by frequent "hell-and-brimstone" revivals | |
| 353397965 | Baptists and Methodists | preachers would travel from one location to another and attract thousands to hear their dramatic preaching at outdoor revival or camp meetings, converted many unchurched into respectable members | |
| 353397966 | Peter Cartwright | Baptist and Methodist circuit preacher | |
| 353397967 | Millennialism | based on belief that the world was going to end with the second coming of Christ, led to the Seventh-Day Adventists | |
| 353397968 | William Miller | preacher who predicted a specific date (October 21, 1844) when the second coming would occur | |
| 353397969 | Mormons | Church of Latter-Day Saints, founded by Joseph Smith in 1830, gathered a following and moved to several states, local mob murdered Smith, moved to Great Salt Lake in Utah and established Great Zion, cooperative social organization led them to prosperity | |
| 353397970 | Book of Mormon | traced a connection between the Native Americans and the lost tribes of Israel | |
| 353397971 | Polygamy | allowing a man to have more than one wife | |
| 353397972 | Transcendentalists | Emerson and Thoreau questioned doctrines of established churches and capitalistic habits of merchant class, argued for mystical and intuitive way of thinking as a means for discovering one's inner self and looking for the essence of God in nature, views challenged materialism, artistic expression was more valuable than pursuit of wealth | |
| 353397973 | Ralph Waldo Emerson | best known transcendentalist, essays expressed individualistic mood of the era, urged Americans not to imitate European culture but to create new American culture, essays argued for self-reliance, independent thinking, primacy of spiritual matters over material ones, became a leading critic of slavery | |
| 353397974 | Henry David Thoreau | close friend of Emerson, conducted a two-year experiment of living by himself in the woods, used observations of nature to discover essential truths about life and the universe, Walden | |
| 353397975 | On Civil Disobedience | Thoreau, established himself as an early advocate of nonviolent protest, refused to pay a tax to support Mexican-American war, would inspire Gandhi and MLK | |
| 353397976 | Brook Farm | George Ripley founded it, communal experiment, "a more natural union between intellectual and manual labor", Emerson, Fuller, Theodore Parker, Hawthorne lived there, bad fire and debts forced the end of the experiment, remembered for its atmosphere of artistic creativity and an innovative school that attracted sons and daughters of New England's elite | |
| 353397977 | Shakers | earliest religious communal movements, 6000 community members, common property, kept women and men separate, forbade marriage and sexual relations, died out in mid 1900s when they couldn't recruit new members | |
| 353397978 | Amana Settlements | founded in Iowa by German Pietists, dedicated to an ascetic life, allowed for marriage, helped to ensure survival of their communities | |
| 353397979 | New Harmony | secular experiment was work of Robert Owen, hoped his utopian socialist community would provide an answer to problems of inequity and alienation caused by Industrial Revolution, experiment failed as a result of disagreements and financial problems | |
| 353397980 | George Ripley | Brook Farm founder | |
| 353397981 | Robert Owen | New Harmony founder | |
| 353397982 | Oneida Community | John Humphrey Noyes 1848 started a cooperative community, dedicated to idea of perfect social and economic equality, members of community shared property, later shared marriage partners, critics attacked planned reproduction and communal child-rearing, managed to prosper economically by producing excellent silverware | |
| 353397983 | John Humphrey Noyes | founded of Oneida Community | |
| 353397984 | Fourier Phalanxes | 1840s many Americans became interested in his ideas, people should share work and living arrangements in these, movement died out quickly | |
| 353397985 | Charles Fourier | French socialist who advocated sharing work and living arrangements | |
| 353397986 | Genre Painting | portraying the everyday life of ordinary people | |
| 353397987 | George Caleb Bingham | depicted the common people in various settings: riverboats, voting, carrying out chores | |
| 353397988 | William S. Mount | won fame for his lively rural compositions | |
| 353397989 | Thomas Cole and Frederick Church | emphasized heroic beauty of American landscapes, especially dramatic scenes along the Hudson River | |
| 353397990 | Hudson River School | school that expressed the romantic age's fascination with the natural world | |
| 353397991 | Architecture | Americans adapted classical Greek styles during Jacksonian era to glorify the democratic spirit of the republic, columned facades graced entryways | |
| 353397992 | Literature | many writers along with Transcendentalists helped to create a distinctly American type, became more nationalistic and eager to reader works of American writers about American themes | |
| 353397993 | James Fenimore Cooper | Leatherstocking Tales included "Last of the Mohicans", "The Pathfinder", "The Deerslayer" | |
| 353397994 | Nathaniel Hawthorne | "The Scarlet Letter" and other works of his questioned intolerance and conformity of American life | |
| 353397995 | Stages of Reform | at first, leaders hoped to improve people's behavior through moral persuasion, after they tried sermons, they moved on to political action and creating new institutions to replace the old | |
| 353411638 | Temperance | five gallons of hard alcohol was consumed per person in 1820, alcohol was targeted as a social ill, shift from moral exhortation to political action, million temperance members, path to middle-class respectability, German and Irish immigrants were opposed to it, factory owners and politicians joined because it would reduce crime and poverty and increase worker output | |
| 353411639 | American Temperance Society | 1826 ministers and others concerned with effects of excess drinking formed this organization, tried to persuade drinkers not just to moderate their drinking but to take a pledge of abstinence | |
| 353411640 | Washingtonians | temperance society begun in 1840 by recovering alcoholics, argued alcoholism was a disease that needed practical, helpful treatment | |
| 353411641 | Maine | 1851 first state to prohibit the manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors | |
| 353411642 | Public Asylums | humanitarian reformers called attention to criminals, emotionally disturbed, and paupers, forced to live in retched conditions, reformers set up new public institutions to help cure individuals of these antisocial behaviors | |
| 353411643 | Mental Hospitals | Dorothea Dix was horrified to find mentally ill persons locked up with convicted criminals, dedicated life to improving their conditions, her report of conditions led many states to build new mental hospitals, give mental treatment | |
| 353411644 | Dorothea Dix | leading insane asylum reformer | |
| 353411645 | Thomas Gallaudet | founded a school for the deaft | |
| 353411646 | Dr. Samuel Gridley | founded a school for the blind | |
| 353411647 | Prisons | new penitentiaries experimented with technique of placing prisoners in solitary confinement to force them to reflect on their sin, dropped because of high suicide rates, structure and discipline would bring about moral reform | |
| 353411648 | Auburn system | penal experiment, enforced rigid rules of discipline while providing moral instruction and work programs | |
| 353411649 | Horace Mann | leading advocate of the public school movement, compulsory attendance for all children, longer school year, increased teacher preparation, tax-supported schools quickly spread | |
| 353411650 | Moral Education | Mann and others wanted children to be instructed in principles of morality | |
| 353411651 | McGuffey Readers | created a series of elementary textbooks that became widely accepted as the basis of reading and moral instruction in hundreds of schools, extolled the virtues of punctuality, hard work, and sobriety, William Holmes McGuffey | |
| 353418866 | Higher Education | religious enthusiasm of Second Great Awakening helped fuel growth of private colleges, Mt. Holyoke and Oberlin College began to admit women | |
| 353418867 | Lyceum Lecture Societies | helped adult education, provided speakers to small-town audiences | |
| 353418868 | American Family | roles of men and women were redefined, men would leave the home six days a week to work, women would remain at home and take care of the household and children, industrialization led families to have fewer children | |
| 353418869 | New York Female Moral Reform Society | society that worked to prevent impoverished young women from being forced into lives of prostitution | |
| 353418870 | Cult of Domesticity | women concentrated on the care of home and children, idealized view of women as moral leaders in the home and educators of the children | |
| 353418871 | Letters on the Condition of Women and the Equality of the Sexes | 1837 written by the Grimke sisters, objected to male opposition to heir antislavery activities | |
| 353418872 | Seneca Falls Convention | 1848 conference of leading feminists, issued a document, first women's rights convention, Stanton and Susan B. Anthony led campaign for equal voting, legal and property rights | |
| 353418873 | Declaration of Sentiments | "all men and women are created equal", listed women's grievances against laws and customs that discriminated against them | |
| 353418874 | American Colonization Society | 1817 transporting freed slaves to an African colony, idea appealed to antislavery reformers with moderate views, politicians who wanted to banish blacks, 1822 founded society in Liberia, never proved practical, slave population grew greatly | |
| 353418875 | The Liberator | 1831 founded by William Lloyd Garrison, marked the beginning of the radical abolitionist movement, uncompromising views in newspaper, immediate abolition of slaves without compensation | |
| 353418876 | American Antislavery Society | began in 1833 by Garrison and other leading abolitionists, Garrison condemned and burned the Constitution as a pro-slavery document, "no Union with slaveholders" until they repented their sins | |
| 353418877 | Liberty Party | a group of northern abolitionists who believed political action would be successful formed this party, ran James Birney in 1840 and 1844, pledge to bring about the end of slaver by political and legal means | |
| 353418878 | Black Abolitionists | escaped slaves and free blacks were outspoken and convincing, spoke about brutality and degradation of slavery, Douglass, Harriet Tubman, David Ruggles, Sojourner Truth, William Still, helped organize efforts to assist fugitive slaves escape to the North | |
| 353418879 | Frederick Douglass | spoke about the brutality and degradation of slavery from first-hand experiences, "The North Star" | |
| 353418880 | David Walker and Henry Highland Garnet | two northern blacks who advocated the most radical solution to the slavery question, slaves should take action themselves by rising up in revolt | |
| 353418881 | Nat Turner | 1831 Virginia slave led a revolt in which 55 whites were killed, hundreds of blacks were killed in retaliation, fear of future uprisings put an end to antislavery talk in the South | |
| 353418882 | American Peace Society | founded in 1828, objective of abolishing war, influenced some New England reformers to oppose Mexican War | |
| 353418883 | Other Reforms | anti-war reforms, laws to protect seamen from being flogged, dietary reforms, dress reform for women, phrenology | |
| 353418884 | Phrenology | the study of the skull's shape to assess a person's character and ability | |
| 353418885 | Southern Reaction to Reform | reforms succeeded very little in South, had no effect, more committed to tradition, slow to support public education and humanitarian reforms, alarmed to see anti-slavery reforms in the North | |
| 353418886 | David Ruggles | an anti-slavery activist who was active in the New York Committee of Vigilance and the Underground Railroad. As an "African-American printer in New York City during the 1830s", who "was the prototype for black activist journalists of his time". He claimed to have led over six hundred people, including friend and fellow abolitionist Frederick Douglass, to freedom in the North. | |
| 353418887 | Harriet Tubman | United States abolitionist born a slave on a plantation in Maryland and became a famous conductor on the Underground Railroad leading other slaves to freedom in the North (1820-1913) | |
| 353418888 | William Still | African American abolitionist and author; 18th son of ex-slaves; wrote The Underground Railroad which chronicles how he helped 649 slaves escape to freedom via the Underground Railroad | |
| 353418889 | Lucretia Mott | Quaker activist in both the abolitionist and women's movements; with Elizabeth Cady Stanton, she was a principal organizer of the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848. | |
| 353418890 | Sojourner Truth | United States abolitionist and feminist who was freed from slavery and became a leading advocate of the abolition of slavery and for the rights of women (1797-1883) |
| 43618338 | volume | l x w x h | 0 | |
| 43618339 | surface area to volume ratio | used to describe a dilema that occurs as cells grow | 1 | |
| 43618340 | surface area | l x w x number of sides | 2 | |
| 43618341 | organelle | compartment within cell that carries out a specific function | 3 | |
| 43618342 | nucleus | organelle within eukaryotic cells that contains genetic information; main office | 4 | |
| 43618343 | chromosome | structure found in nucleus containing DNA and protein; file cabinet | 5 | |
| 43618344 | nuclear envelope | membrane enclosing nucleus included in the endomembrane system | 6 | |
| 43618345 | nuclear pores | holes in nuclear membrane that connects nucleus to endoplasmic reticulum | 7 | |
| 43618346 | vesicles | sacs that act as transporters within the endomembrane system | 8 | |
| 43618347 | Rough endoplasmic reticulum | site of protein synthesis; assembly line | 9 | |
| 43618348 | Smooth endoplasmic reticulum | site of lipid synthesis | 10 | |
| 43618349 | Ribosomes | organelles responsible for assembling proteins; factory workers | 11 | |
| 43618350 | Golgi apparatus | part of endomembrane system responsible for modifying and tagging proteins; customization shop | 12 | |
| 43618351 | Lysosomes | vesicles containing digestive enzymes; custodial staff | 13 | |
| 43618352 | Vacuoles | membranous sacs belonging to endomembrane that serve as storage...particularly prominent in plants; warehouse | 14 | |
| 43618353 | Contractile Vacuole | Specialized vacuole found in protists responsible for regulating water | 15 | |
| 43618354 | Endomembrane system | Membranous system serving to connect organelles within the cell | 16 | |
| 43618355 | Chloroplasts | Organelles responsible for the conversion of sunlight energy into chemical energy; solar panels | 17 | |
| 43618356 | Mitochondria | organelle responsible for converting chemical energy into cellular energy ATP; generator | 18 | |
| 43618357 | Cytoskeleton | Internal skeleton within cell. Also involved in cellular movement. | 19 | |
| 43635216 | Microtubules | Component of cytoskeleton that serve as tracks for organelle movement. | 20 | |
| 43635217 | Organelles involeved in manufacturing | nucleus, ribosomes, rough and smooth ER, Golgi apparatus | 21 | |
| 43635218 | Organelles involved in breakdown | lysosomes, vacuoles | 22 | |
| 43635219 | Organelles involved in energy processing | chloroplasts, mitochondria | 23 | |
| 43635220 | Cell parts making up endomembrane system | nuclear envelope, ER, Golgi, cell membrane, vesicles | 24 | |
| 43635221 | fluid mosaic | description of cell membrane that depicts a moving membrane imbedded with proteins and carbohydrates | 25 | |
| 43635222 | lipid bilayer | description of cell membrane depicting two layers of phosplipids | 26 |
AP European History key terms from Chapter 12 of Western Civilization by Jackson Spielvogel
| 448460863 | Renaissance | word meaning rebirth, a significant cultural movement from 14th to 17th centuries with huge innovations in art, music, literature, and intellect | |
| 448460864 | Jacob Burckhardt | Swiss historian who studied art and culture, crediting Italians with birth of the Renaissance. Wrote The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy | |
| 448460865 | Hanseatic League | Commercial and defensive alliance along coast of northern Europe, to protect economic privileges of coastal cities and states visited by merchants | |
| 448460866 | House of Medici | Prominent banking family from the Republic of Florence, founded most successful European bank of the 15th century | |
| 448460867 | Second Estate | A division of middle age society that included nobility like earls, counts, barons, dukes, and kings | |
| 448480928 | Baldassare Castiglione | Italian writer who wrote The Book of the Courtier | |
| 448480929 | The Book of the Courtier | A popular handbook among aristocrats in Italy for many centuries, describing the attributes of the perfect courtier | |
| 448480930 | Third Estate | A division of middle age society that included peasants, poor people, and slaves | |
| 448509980 | Renaissance slavery | The purchase, ownership, or other trafficking of humans as property during the Renaissance | |
| 448854740 | dowry | Payment or property that is brought to a marriage by the bride's family to give to the groom's | |
| 448854741 | Francisco Sforza | Conquered Milan after the death of the last Visconti, established himself as duke of the city | |
| 448854742 | Cosimo de'Medici | The first of the Medici political dynasty, he took control of the Republic of Florence and made it his oligarchy | |
| 449620727 | Milan | a duchy located in what is now northwestern Italy, conquered by Francisco Sforza | |
| 449620728 | Venice | a "republic" located in what is now northeastern Italy, began to conquer more land to expand its food and trade | |
| 449620729 | Florence | an oligarchic "republic" located in what is now western Italy, conquered by Cosimo De'Medici | |
| 449620730 | Papal States | a theocratic state controlled by the pope, located in what is now central Italy | |
| 449620731 | Naples | a kingdom located in what is now southern Italy. Known for its weakness; France and Aragon fought to dominate it | |
| 449620732 | Urbino | once a city-state in central Italy, became a center of culture and intellect | |
| 449620733 | L'umo universale | a social ideal of the well-rounded personality or universal person | |
| 449620734 | Federigo da Montefeltro | Ruler of Urbino, known as a great patron of Renaissance culture | |
| 449620735 | Battista Sforza | Wife of Federigo da Montefeltro, she governed Urbino in her husband's absence | |
| 449620736 | Isabella d'Este | known as "the first lady of the world," she was widely known for her wisdom, intellect, and clever negotiations | |
| 449620737 | balance of power | concept designed to prevent the enlargement of one state at the expense of others | |
| 449620738 | Peace of Lodi | a peaceful, 40 year era in Italy after 50 years of warfare, created alliance system (Milan, Florence, and Naples vs. Venice and The Papacy) | |
| 449689996 | Ludovico Sforza | Milanese duke who invited French to intervene in Italian politics, allowing the French bring an army and occupy Naples | |
| 449689997 | Charles VIII | King of France who brought army and occupied Naples | |
| 449702865 | Ferdinand | King of Aragon who fought to dominate Naples | |
| 449702866 | Francis I | Son of Charles VIII, continued to fight to dominate Naples | |
| 449702867 | Charles I | Spanish king who continued to fight to dominate Naples after Ferdinand's death, his armies led the Sack of Rome | |
| 449948210 | diplomatic system | the system of negotiations between ambassadors from different states | |
| 449948211 | Niccolo Machiavelli | Florentine diplomat and Republican, sent into exile after Medici family returned to power, wrote The Prince | |
| 449948212 | The Prince | book written by Niccolo Machiavelli, giving concrete expression to Renaissance political power | |
| 450258065 | humanism | literary and linguistic movement in an attempt to revive classical Latin | |
| 450258066 | Individualism | ideology that stressed the goals, desires, and moral worth of the individual | |
| 450428149 | Petrarch | One of Europe's greatest lyric poets. Wrote in vernacular Italian, known as the Father of Humanism | |
| 450428150 | civic humanism | humanism that includes involvement in politics with intellect | |
| 450428151 | The New Cicero | a biography of Marcus Tullius Cicero, written by Leonardo Bruni | |
| 450428152 | Leonardo Bruni | A humanist, writer of The New Cicero | |
| 450428153 | Lorenzo Valla | Papal secretary who wrote The Elegances of the Latin Language, tried to purify Latin | |
| 450428154 | Marcilio Ficino | known for translating Plato and the exposition of Neoplatonism | |
| 450428155 | neoplatonism | Platonic philosophy, based on the ideas of hierarchy of substance and spiritual love | |
| 450937030 | Marsilio Ficino | Began neoplatonism, translated Plato | |
| 450937031 | hermeticism | set of beliefs stressing astrology, alchemy, and magic as well as theological and philosophical speculations | |
| 450937032 | Pico Della Mirandola | A prominent Italian intellect, wrote Oration on the Dignity of Man | |
| 450937033 | liberal studies | studies offered at Vittorino's school including history, philosophy, eloquence, language arts, math, astronomy, and music | |
| 450937034 | Vittorino | He founded a school in Mantua which provided a humanist education for children (just boys) | |
| 450937035 | Francesco Guicciardini | Italian historian, wrote History of Italy and History of Florence | |
| 450937036 | Johannes Gutenberg | First European to use printing with movable metal type | |
| 450937037 | Leonardo da Vinci | Italian renaissance painter, known for his diversely varied talents and his masterpieces The Mona Lisa, The Last Supper, and The Virgin and the Child | |
| 450937038 | Masaccio | Early Italian renaissance painter, painted Tribute Money | |
| 450937039 | Lorenzo the Magnificent | A leading citizen of Florence, he contributed large sums of money to artists so they could create master works of art | |
| 450937040 | Botticelli | Italian painter whose interest in Greek and Roman mythology is reflected in his famous Primavera | |
| 450937041 | Donatello | Italian sculptor, created life-size statue David, shown with the head of Goliath at his feet | |
| 450937042 | Brunelleschi | Italian architect, designed the Dome of the Duomo and the Church of San Lorenzo | |
| 451055225 | Raphael | Italian painter and architect, known for his work School of Athens | |
| 451055226 | Michelangelo | Italian painter, sculptor, and architect, known for painting the Sistine Chapel and creating the Statue of David | |
| 451055227 | Bramante | Italian Renaissance architect, known for designing the Tempietto and Saint Peter's Basilica | |
| 451439914 | Jan Van Eyck | Flemish painter, known for his famous painting of Giovanni Arnolfini and His Bride | |
| 451439915 | Albrecht Durer | German painter, known for his painting Adoration of the Magi, greatly affected by Italians | |
| 451439916 | Guillaume Dufay | One of the most important composers of the 1400s | |
| 451439917 | madrigal | poem set to music, originating from 14th century Italian courts, written for 5 to 6 voices | |
| 451439918 | Louis XI | King of France, also known as the Spider, he generated a sound source of revenue for the government with the Taille | |
| 451439919 | Henry VII | King of England, established Tudor Dynasty by overthrowing Richard III | |
| 451439920 | Ferdinand | King of Spain, husband of Isabella | |
| 451439921 | Isabella | Queen of Spain, wife of Ferdinand | |
| 451439922 | Habsburgs | A ruling dynasty of the HRE, one of the wealthiest landholders in the Empire | |
| 451439923 | Matthias Corvinus | King of Hungary who patronized the new humanist culture | |
| 451439924 | Ivan III | Russian king, formed the Principality of Moscow, expelled Mongols from the land | |
| 451439925 | Ottoman Turks | Advanced rapidly on Eastern Europe, capturing land and ending the Byzantine Empire, beginning their own empire. Eventually faced off against HRE | |
| 451439926 | John Wyclif | English theologian from Oxford who challenged the pope and rituals of the medieval Church | |
| 451439927 | the Lollards | a group John Wyclif's followers | |
| 451439928 | John Hus | Chancellor who attacked the excessive power of the papacy, later burned at the stake by Council of Constance | |
| 451439929 | nepotism | Favoritism granted to family members regardless of merit, used among Popes | |
| 451439930 | Execrabilis | Papal bull condemning appeals to a council over the head of a pope as heretical |
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