AP Notes, Outlines, Study Guides, Vocabulary, Practice Exams and more!

Ethics Terms - Shaffer Flashcards

Ethics

Terms : Hide Images
504313824Aiken's Model expressiveA statement that is agreed upon by consenting moral communities with similar views and cultural or religious
504313825Aiken's Model articulateMust give reason and identify principles which support a position
504313826AIken's Model ethical reflectionMust give further justification and an example of grounding or an account of how moral rule or principle is to be understood
504313827Aiken's Model human levelMoral rules are a signal that behavior of the opposite sort has taken place/ human beings resist being bound to principles set by society and call them into question
504313828Aiken's ModelLinguistic discourse is distinguished by several different levels
504326277Toulman's model claimAssertion made about a particular topic - a warrant
504326278Toulman's model backingSupport given that relates to warrant and more elaborate than warrant
504326279Toulman's model rebuttalAn opposing argument. Serves as greater support for claim when refuted with a qualifying statement
504326280Toulman's model qualifying statementRedefines claim for opposing evidence and conflicting conclusions
504326281Toulman's model conclusionRestatement of initial claim - takes into account rebuttal and qualifying statement
504326282sophistgroup of itinerant teachers who questioned to what extent morality was a matter of nature and to what extent a matter of custom tradition
504326283niomachian ethics1st systematic treatment of ethics in Western civilization
504326284categorical imperativebounding on all people b/c it is affirmed by reason, every rational person accept his or her obligation to follow reason
504326285utilitarianismrightness or wrongness of action is determined by the goodness or badness of the consequences
504326286deontologyethics is a duty. doing the moral things b/c it is the right thing to do and is the best way - God's command. law.
504326287teleologyethics of consequence. Doing something only b/c it causes a good outcome for you
504326288ethicsthe study of right and wrong conduct
504326289normative ethicsanswers specific moral questions, determines what is reasonable and therefore what people should believe
504326290metaethicsethical system to appraise their logical foundation and internal consistency
504326291moral situationsituation in which there is a chose of behavior involving human values
505641469ethical systemp Set of coherent ideas that result from conclusions and form an overall moral perspective
505641470moral discoursep Using understanding and intellectual procedure and judgement criteria that all participants affirm
505641471multi-culturismp Every race or ethnic group has its own values and characteristic behaviors, that one group's values are not any better or worse than any other's and criticism of another culture's ideas and actions is wrong
505641472cultural relativityp Difference in morality in difficult cultures
505641473just lawsp Human laws that square with natural and divine laws
505641474unjust lawsp Human laws that do not square with Divine or natural laws, they do not need to be followed
505641475Moral Point of Viewp Reason for judgement consist of fact at the effect of actions and desire on others, identified by determining what facts are reason for moral judgement, willingness to universalize judgement
505641476moralityp Instrument of society/ personal code, use reason to make own decision with principles and advise of others
505641477social matrixp Temporal, pluralism based on personal experiences, not universal; moral languages are diverse among social worlds
507919780externalizationa theory of human nature which argues that human beings are characterized by the feature of "pouring out into the world"
507919784externalizationa theory of human nature which argues that human beings are characterized by the feature of "pouring out into the world"
507919781process of forgetfulnessdocuments objectified a forgetfulness about their social production occurs; language is dynamic and changing
507919785process of forgetfulnessdocuments objectified a forgetfulness about their social production occurs; language is dynamic and changing
507919782internalizationHuman beings internalize these meanings
507919786internalizationHuman beings internalize these meanings
507919783Social Worldsconstituted by a symbolic level which condenses and stores fundamental ideas (laws and torah)
507919787symbolhave a deeper meaning then what they acually are used for ex: cross
507935253cavethe prison for your mind
507935254reality; leaving the caveThe opening of your mind to how life really is, and the acceptance of great knowledge
507935255sunlightReality and the flood of knowledge
507935256fettersthings that keep us from seeing the truth of what something is
507935257principle of Right Desire"we ought to desire what is really good for us and nothing else," this is self-evident and cant be contradicted
507935258Principle of ContradictionAn idea cannot be both true and false at the same time in the same way
507935259absolutismA norm or principle that is true at all times and in all places and admits of no exceptions
507935260relativismNo objective moral standard is possible, issues of right and wrong are personal and subjective and maybe decided by each person for himself or herself without danger of being wrong
507935261ethosFundamental values that ground and shape a communty and appear as grounds for individual actions, there are different understandings
507935262world viewRelated to ifs, there are different views because there are layer of what is understood with angle of vision or point of view
507935263wildingHurting others simply for fun or purely emotive gratification
507935264expressive wildingCausing harm to others for sheer gratification of indulging one's own restructive impuse
507935265instrumental wildingHarming others not just for fun but for money, career advancement, or other calcuable personal gains
507935266economic wildingMorally uninhabited pursuit of money by individuals and businesses at the expense of others
507935267political wildingAbuse of political office to benefit oneself or one's own social class/ or using political authority to cause pain to others
507935268social wildingRanges from personal to family acts of violence, abusing wife or children/ collective forms of selfishness that weaken society
507935269institutionalized wildingWilding preformed by corporations or governments
507935270individualismAntisocial behavior, acts that it might appear to stand for everything or nothing
507935271number oneOneself
507935272law of natureLaws and rules that can be found through observing nature around us
507935273hedonisticLooking out for number one is not hedonistic, man's primary moral duty lise in the pursuit of pleasure
507935274altruistic actsSelf concern for the well-being of others
507935275presuppostition of behavior"what I've done, I can do again and again." Continuity of past and present behavior; trust in experience as cause and effect
507935276majority viewLess then perfect, majority ignorance is as common as majority wisdom, more then 51% of the population
507935277conscience"inner voice", intuition that is innate in humans
507935278natural endowmentA person's basic metabolism and temperament that are essentially inborn
507935279social conditioningMyriad effect of our environment on the values we are exposed to as we grow up and develop
507935280moral choicePeople tend to behave in ways that are consistent with their thinking is fairly well known
507935281tough mindIncisive thinking, realistic appraisal, and decisive judgment, sharp and penetrating
507935282soft mindGullibility, constantly invaded by irrational fears, superstitions
507935283hard heartLack genuine compassion, violent acts
507935284soft heartCompassionate and sorrowful
507935285utilitarianismActions are right if they are useful or for the benefit of a majority
507935286incompletenessChallenges you to compare yourself to others
507935287unfinishednessSeeking to belong, relationship longing.need to be with people
507935288injusticeSmall injustices you see now can help you fight larger injustices later
507935289finitudeWhat you want to be know for when you are dead
507935290memoria/ reflectionthinking back on your life and being able to step back and think of it objectively
507935291agapePrinciple describing the type of action that Christians regard as good
507935292situationism or situational ethicsyou use the rules/laws within certain situations
507935293legalismFollowing the rules instead of moral guideance/one has folloed a law or rule one has done right no matter what
507935294antinomianismthere are no laws/rules to follow
507935295theocentricConsideration be given to the "larger good" and ever to the "good of the whole"
507935296divine command theoryIdea that something is right because God commands it, God commands it because it is right
507935297moral agentBiological and social conditions are taken into account in most systematic views, There are philosophical and theological conditions
507935298discernmentThat which identifies moral aspects or dimensions of a situation; first we perceive then we discern to whom we have priority of obligation
507935299objective theory of the goodValues is outside us and objective to our world reason, through intellectual reasoning and intuition and through commands of theological insight and Bible
507935300subjective theory of the goodUnderstanding the nature of "good" individually; there are multiple views
507935301relational theory of the good"good" is understood in bi-polar subjective roots of the good are interconnected with the objects of the good
507935302altrusimRegard for and evetion to the interest of other
507935303universal altruismBeyond the eternal accidents of race, religion, and nationality
507935304dangerous altruismTo risk oneself to help another
507935305excessive altruismTo sympathize with another, to go the extra mile in helping someone
507935306obligationRestrictions on our behavior, demands to do something or avoid doing it
507935307idealAre aspects of excellence, goals that bring greater harmony within one's self and between self and others
507935308consequenceThe beneficial or harmful effect that results from an action and affect the people involved, including the person performing the action
507935309obligation of reparationthe obligation to make ammends when you have wronged someone
507935310obligations of gratitudeDuty of Gratification
507935311categorical imperativeWe should act in such a way that we would want our actions to become a universal Law
507935312principles of humanityPeople are always the final end or goal, they are never the means to an end
507935313principle of autonomyEach person must decide things for him or herself
507935314prima facie dutySelf evident principles; they are known these moral rules or principles by intuition
507935315duty of fidelityPrior action; involved in such situations as remaining faithful to contacts, keeping promises, and repairing wrongful actions
507935316duty of gratitudeObligations that come from relationships we have with other people; duty to help those who have helped us in the past
507935317duty of justiceStanding by principle of being sure that people only get what they deserve or are entitled to
507935318duty of self improvementMake the most of our intelligence, talent, or situation; feel the need to help others while improving ourselves
507935319duty of non maleficenceSupplement to the duty of beneficence; avoid harming others physically, emotionally or psychologically
Powered by Quizlet.com

Biology Ch. 6: How Cells Harvest Chemical Energy Flashcards

How Cells Harvest Chemical Energy

Terms : Hide Images
303963384PhotosynthesisPhotosynthesis removes carbon dioxide from atmosphere, and cellular respiration puts it back. It releases oxygen into the atmosphere, and cellular respiration uses that oxygen to release energy from food.
303963385Cellular RespirationThe process through which cells convert food into energy. There are three steps: glycolysis, Krebs cycle/ citric acid cycle, and electron transport chain.
303963386OxygenThe final acceptor in cellular respiration (combines with two H+ to make H2O). Needed in aerobic respiration, but not in anaerobic respiration.
303963387Carbon DioxideThe byproduct of anaerobic and aerobic respiration. 6 O2 + C6H12O6 (glucose) = 6 CO2 (carbon dioxide) + 6 H2O + Energy (ATP)
303963388ATPThe cellular form of energy. Adenine Triphosphate. Created when Hydrogen passes through the ATP synthase during the final stage of cellular respiration.
303963389MitochondriaWhere the Krebs Cycle (matrix) and the Electron Transport Chain (inter-membrane space) takes place.
303963390GlycolysisThe first stage of cellular respiration, doesn't require oxygen (anaerobic). Glucose broken into 2 pyruvic acids, in that process NADH carries electrons to electron transport chain and there is a net gain of 2 ATP
303963391Citric Acid CycleSecond stage of cellular respiration, requires oxygen. Pyruvic Acid broken down into Carbon Dioxide and energy is once again created and transported. Pyruvic acid enters the matrix. Acetyl CoA converts pyruvic acid into citric acid. For each turn of the Krebs cycle, one ATP is produced.
303963392ATP SynthaseH+ ions pass back across the membrane (going with the concentration gradient now) through the ATP synthase (enzyme). It creates such a force that causes the ATP synthase molecule to spin. With each rotation, the ATP synthase attaches a phosphate to ADP to produce ATP.
303963393CristaeThe folds of the Mitochondria.
303963394MatrixInside the mitochondria. Where the Krebs Cycle takes place.
303963395NADHProduced in Glycolysis but isn't used until later. NAD+ picks up electrons and creates NADH, which is an electron carrier. NADH carries the electrons to electron transport chain, where they produce more ATP. 1 glucose molecule = 2 NADH
303963396FADH2Produced in the Krebs Cycle. FAD picks up electrons and turns into FADH2. FADH2 then passes high-energy electrons to the electron carrier proteins in the electron transport chain.
303963397Anaerobic RespirationCellular respiration without the use of Oxygen. Ex: Wines.
303963398Lactic Acid FermentationAnaerobic respiration. CHEMICAL EQUATION: Pyruvic Acid + NADH = Lactic Acid + NAD+. Main difference between Lactic and Alcoholic Fermentation: Lactic acid doesn't produce CO2.
303963399Alcohol FermentationAnaerobic respiration. Used to produce alcoholic beverages and causes bread. Longer = Better. CHEMICAL EQUATION: Pyruvic acid + NADH = Alcohol + CO2 + NAD+.
303963400Obligate AnaerobesHave to/Only do anaerobic (no oxygen) respiration. Ex: Prokaryotes in a stagnant pond.
303963401Facultative AnaerobesCan go between anaerobic and aerobic respiration. Ex: Yeast
303963402Describe the role of energy in organisms.Energy is what powers cells, and allows living cells and organisms to carry out simple or complex tasks. In order to make energy, food is converted into ATP, which is then used as energy to power certain actions.
303963403Explain the relationship between chemical bonds and energy.When chemical bonds are broken, the energy that is created by the breaking of those bonds is used to power other parts of the cell.
303963404Compare and contrast ATP and Glucose.Through the breakdown of Glucose, ATP is generated. Each glucose (after going through cellular respiration) creates about 36 ATP all together. ATP is the raw form of energy, and glucose is just something that stores energy until broken down
303963405Describe the structure and function of the Mitochondria. Describe where in the mitochondria each stage of cellular respiration takes place.The mitochondria is used for the process of cellular respiration. Outside of the mitochondria, glycolysis takes place. In the matrix of the mitochondria, the Krebs cycle takes place. In the inter membrane space, the electron transport chain uses the cristae to force hydrogen against and with it's concentration gradient.
303963406Explain the roles of NADH and FADH2 in cellular respiration.NADH and FADH both collect any "dropped" electrons in all of the stages of cellular respiration. NAD+ picks up electrons and becomes NADH, and FAD to turn into FADH2. After depositing the electrons, NADH and FADH2 turn back into NAD+ and FAD and get reused.
303963407Describe the significance of oxygen in aerobic cellular respirationOxygen is a powerful electron accepter and the final electron acceptor. Oxygen helps to transport electrons to the electron transport chain and also, after passing through all of the stages of cellular respiration, bonds with 2 hydrogen to make H2O, which is then exported out of the cell.
303963408Compare and contrast aerobic and anaerobic cellular respiration.Aerobic respiration requires Oxygen, and Anaerobic respiration doesn't requrie Oxygen. Aerobic respiration can occur for any amount of time, whereas anaerobic respiration can only take place for long, extended periods of time.
303963409PhosphorylationWhen one phosphate is added to ADP to create ATP in the ATP synthase.
3039634106 O2 + C6H12O6 = 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy (ATP)6 O2 + C6H12O6 = 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy (ATP)
Powered by Quizlet.com

Psychology - Themes and Variations 8E - Chapter 7 Vocabulary Flashcards

Psychology - Themes and Variations 8E - Chapter 7 Vocabulary

Terms : Hide Images
427101901Encodinginvolves forming a memory code
427101902Storageinvolves maintaining encoding information in memory over time
427101903Retrievalinvolves recovering information from memory stores
427101904Sensory memorypreserves information in its organizational sensory form for a brief time, usually only a fraction of a second
427101905Short-term memory (STM)is a limited-capacity store that can maintaing unrehearsed information for up to about 20 seconds
427101906Chunkis a group of familiar stimuli stored as a single unit
427101907Long-term memory (LTM)in an unlimited capacity store that can hold information over lengthy periods of time
427101908Schemais an organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or event abstracted from previous experience with the object or event
427101909Recall measurerequires participants to reproduce information on their own without any cues
427101910Recognition measureof retention requires participants to select previously learned information from an array of options
427101911Relearning measureof retention requires a participant to memorize information a second time to determine how much time or effort is saved by having learned it before
427101912Decay theoryproposes that forgetting occurs because memory traces fade with time
427101913Interference theoryproposes that people forget information because of competition from other material
427101914Repressionrefers to keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in the unconscious
427101915Retrograde amnesiaa person loses memories for events that occurred prior to the injury
427101916Anterograde amnesiaa person loses memories for events that occur after the injury
427101917Consolidationis a hypothetical process involving the gradual conversion of information into durable memory codes stored in long-term memory
427101918Declarative memory systemhandles factual information
427101919Nondeclarative memory systemhouses memory for actions, skills, conditioned responses, and emotional memory
427101920Episodic memory systemis made up of chronological, or temporarily dated, recollection of person experiences
427101921Semantic memory systemcontains general knowledge that is not tied to time when the information was learned
427101922Over-learningrefers to continued rehearsal of material after you first appear to have mastered it
427101923Serial-position effectoccurs when subjects show better recall for items at the beginning and end of a list than for items in the middle
Powered by Quizlet.com

AP Govt Unit 3 Note Cards Flashcards

Terms : Hide Images
786212069Anti-federalistspeople who opposed the Constitution
786212070DealignmentWhen a significant number of voters choose to no longer support a particular political party.
786212071Democratic Republican PartyOne of the first two political parties in the United States, led by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison; opposed the Federalist party and was strongly in favor of individual rights
786212072Era of good feelingAn political era when the Federalist party faded away and there were almost no divisions; James Monroe was President
786212073federalist partya major political party in the United States in the early 19th century
786212074Grass-Roots organizationslocal people who work for the party
786212075Gridlockthe inability of the government to act because rival parties control different parts of the government
786212076Linkage institutionsThe means by which individuals can express preferences regarding the development of public policy.
786212077Mcgovern- Fraser CommisionCommision that set guidelines for political elections
786212078Political EfficacyThe belief that one's political participation really matters - that one's vote can actually make a difference
786212079populist partya former political party in the United States
786212080Proportional representationrepresentation of all parties in proportion to their popular vote
786212081roosevelt CoalitionAlso known as the New Deal. Established by Roosevelt during the Great Depression, it helped the unemployed and the lost wages due to the panic on wall street
786212082Straight ticketVoting for candidates who are all of the same party
786212083Ticket splittingvoting with one party for one office and with another party for other offices
786212084Universal manhood suffragegiving all adult men the right to vote
786212085Whig partyPolitical party formed in 1834 to oppose policies of Andrew Jackson
786212086Winner-take-all electoral systeman electoral system in which the party that receives at least one more vote than any other party wins the election
786212087527spolitical organizations formed primarily to influence elections and therefore exempt from most federal taxes
786212088Bipartisan campaign reform act of 2002banned soft money donations to national parties
786212089blanket primarieselections to select party nominees in which voters are presented with a list of candidates from all the parties.
786212090Buckley vs ValeoSupreme Court ruled that it is unconstitutional for Congress to limit the amount of money an individual may spend supporting a candidate if the expenditures are made independent of the campaign.
786212091Campaign reform act of 1974Response to Watergate scandal, said that donations over $100 had to be accounted for
786212092Caucusesmeetings where political parties chose their candidates
786212093closed primariesprimary elections in which only registered party members may vote
786212094Coat tail effectwhen popular candidate running for a high-profile office pulls other candidates of party into office
786212095critical realigning electionan election that produces a sharp change in the existing pattern of party loyalties among groups of voters
786212096frontloadingthe recent tendency of states to hold primaries early in the calendar in order to capitalize on media attention
786212097general electionAn election held to choose which candidate will hold office
786212098open primariesprimary elections in which eligible voters do not need to be registered party members
786212099PACsPolitical Action Committees, raise money for candidates/parties
786212100PluralityCandidate or party with the most votes cast in an election, not necessarily more than half.
786212101Presidential debatesOfficial televised debates between presidential nominees that are highly important to the campaign.
786212102Single-member districtsOnly one representative is chosen from each district
786212103Soft moneyfunds obtained by political parties that are spent on party activities, such as get-out-the-vote drives, but not on behalf of a specific candidate
786212104electioneeringpersuasion of voters in a political campaign
786212105foundation grantsgrants given to interest groups by foundations/non-profit organizations
786212106free rider problemthe difficulty interest groups face in recruiting members when the benefits they achieve can be gained without joining the group
786212107individual interestsBeliefs, values, attitudes, and social issues (Group interest voters/ideology)
786212108institutional interestsIndividuals or organizations representing other organizations
786212109interest groupsgroups of people who work together for similar interests or goals
786212110lobbyingattempting to influence policy makers
786212111elite theorytheory that upper class elites exercise great influence over public policy
786212112Hyperpluralist theoryA theory of government and politics contending that groups are so strong that government is weakened.
786212113Pluralist theorythe theory that political power is distributed among a wide array of diverse and competing interest groups
786212114Public interest groupsgroups that organize to influence government to produce collective goods or services that benefit the general public
786212115Revolving dooran organization or institution with a high rate of turnover of personnel or membership
786212116Union shopa company allowed to hire nonunion workers on the condition that they will join the union within a specified time
Powered by Quizlet.com

American Pageant - Chapter 9 Flashcards

Review questions for Chapter 9 of the American Pageant - Textbook for Ms Brainard's AP US History Class

Terms : Hide Images
983888735Who, in 1775 formed the first anti slavery society?The Philadelphia Quakers.
983888736What prevented the complete abolition of slavery during the years of the American Revolution?Fears that a fight over slavery would have fractured the fragile national unity.
983888737What differentiated the American constitution from the British Constitution?The British Constitution was a collection of laws, customs, and presidents while the American Constitution was a contract that defined the powers of government.
983888738What is republican motherhood?A popular sentiment of the American Revolutionary period that revered women as homemakers and mothers and the cultivators of good republican values in young citizens.
983888739Following the revolution, what kinds of sovereign behaviors did the individual states exhibit?They each coined their own money, raised their own armies and navies, erected tariff barriers, and, in the case of Virginia, engaged in their own foreign treaties.
983888740What was the first written constitution in America and when was it adopted?The Articles of Confederation was adopted in 1777 (but wasn't ratified by all thirteen states until 1781)
983888741Who held out until 1781 to ratify the Articles of Confederation?It was Maryland! The larger states (New York and Virginia) were able to sell off land to pay war debt and Maryland wanted some of New York. The problem was solved by giving some of New York to the Federal Government for the 'common benefit.'
983888742What were Congress's two biggest handicaps during the early days of the Constitution?1. It had no power to regulate commerce, and 2. It had no means for enforcing its tax-collection program.
983888743What was the location of the early American Congress?Philadelphia
983888744According to the Northwest Ordinance what was necessary for a territory to become a state?60,000 inhabitants
983888745What did the Northwest Ordinance say about slavery?The ordinance forbade slavery in the Old Northwest.
983888746What was the Old Northwest?A huge area northwest of the Ohio River and east of the Mississippi. It is now occupied by part of Minnesota, and all of Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, and Michigan
983888747What was the Land Ordinance of 1785?It dictated that the area known as the Old Northwest should be divided into townships six miles square with each of those divided into thirty six one mile areas. These one mile areas were sold off to raise money for the federal government with each 16th s
983888748What were some of the unfriendly things that the British did to the colonies following the war.The refused American trade ships; blocked American access to the West Indies; tried to annex Vermont; and curried favor with Indians that were hostile towards the colonists.
983888749What important colonial route did Spain control?Entrance to the mouth of the Mississippi.
983888750What did France want from American following the Revolution.The French wanted the colonies to pay off the money they borrowed to fund the Revolution?
983888751Where did the pirates that ravaged American shores come from?North Africa, especially Algeria attached American shores and frequently enslaved Yankee soldiers.
983888752What was Shays Rebellion? and when did it happen?In 1786 Captain Daniel Shays led a group of impoverished Massachusetts farmers who were losing their farms in foreclosures marched on the state government to demand that they issue paper money.
983888753How was Shays Rebellion resolved?Wealthy Massachusetts residents quickly put together an army and there were several battles with the Massachusetts army emerging as the victor?
983888754What were the legislative ramifications of Shays Rebellion?It frightened the wealthier colonists. Debt relief laws (that Shay wanted) were put into place, but also it heralded in a stronger Federal Government which was achieved via a new Constitution.
983888755Society of the CincinnatiA secret society formed by officers of the Continental Army. The group was named for George Washington, whose nickname was Cincinnatus, although Washington himself had no involvement in the society.
983888756What is Primogeniture?med evil concept of seniority by birth; state of being the first-born child; right of the eldest child (to inherit the entire property of one or both parents) began to dissipate in the 1800's
983888757What was the Congregational Church?A church grown out of the Puritan church, was established in all New England colonies but Rhode Island. It was based on the belief that individual churches should govern themselves. The Congregational Church become more popular than the English Anglican
983888758What was the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom?Written in 1776 by Jefferson and Madison it argued that the concept of compulsory religion is wrong, no forced religious worship or ministry and no discrimination on account of his opinions or belief but free to believe what they wish, and that these righ
983888759What did James Madison write regarding slavery vs the union?wrote in 1778 "Great as the evil (slavery) is a dismemberment of the union would be worse"
983888760What is Civic Virtue?notion that democracy depended on unselfish commitment to the public good
983888761What was the Continental Congress?A first meeting of ambassadors from the territories that called for a republic where states govern
983888762What was special about the New Jersey's 1776 Constitution?Gave women the right to vote for a time
983888763What were the Articles of Confederation?A written agreement ratified in 1781 by the thirteen original states, this document, the nations first constitution, was adopted by the second continental congress in 1781during the revolution. the document was limited because states held most of the powe
983888764What was the Constitutional Convention?A meeting of delegates in 1787 to revise the Articles of Confederation, which produced the new U.S. Constitution
983888765What is a fundamental law?Laws of basic and lasting importance which may not easily be changed.
983888766What is the House of representatives?the number of representatives would be based on the state population.
983888767What is the Senate?upper house of the legislature, each state elects two
983888768What is the Executive branch?the branch of the United States government that is responsible for carrying out the laws
983888769What is the Electoral college?the body of electors who formally elect the United States president and vice-president
983888770What was Virginia's Large State Plan for the new government?It said that the arrangement in Congress should be based upon a state's population.
983888771What was New Jersey's Small State Plan for the new government?It centered on equal representation in Congress without regards to a state's size or population.
983888772What was the final result of the small state plan and the large state plan?The final compromise û known as ôö û was a Congress composed of two parts
983888773What were Federalists?The Federalists favored a strong Federal Government. In general they were wealthier than the Anti-federalists, more educated, and better organized.á They also controlled the press. George Washington and Benjamin Franklin were Federalists
983888774What were Anti-Federalists?The Anti-federalists were led byáSamuel Adams,áPatrick Henry, andáRichard Henry Lee.á The followers consisted of states' rights devotees, back country dwellers, and one-horse farmers - in general, the poorest class.
Powered by Quizlet.com

AP Psychology - Brain/Biology Flashcards

AP Psychology - Brain/Biology vocabulary.
Fore more info visit:
www.APStudyGuides.weebly.com

Terms : Hide Images
192389097biological psychologya branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior
192389098neurona nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system
192389099dendritethe bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body
192389100axonthe extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands
192389101myelina fatty substance that helps insulate neurons and speeds the transmission of nerve impulses
192389102action potentiala neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon
192389103thresholdthe level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse
192389104synapsestiny gaps between dentrites and axons of different neurons
192389105neurotransmitterschemical messengers that traverse the synaptic gaps between neurons
192389106acetycholineneurotransmitter associated with voluntary movement, sleep and wakefulness. Too little is associated with Alzheimer's
192389107endorphinsnatural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure
192389108nervous systemthe body's speedy, electrochemical communication system, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems
192389109central nervous systembrain and spinal cord
192389110peripheral nervous systemthe sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body
192389111nervesneural "cables" containing many axons. These bundled axons, which are part of the peripheral nervous system, connect the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs
192389112sensory neuronsneurons that carry incoming information from the sense receptors to the central nervous system
192389113interneuronsCentral nervous system neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs
192389114motor neuronsneurons that carry outgoing information from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands
192389115somatic nervous systemthe division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles
192389116autonomic nervous systemThe part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.
192389117sympathetic nervous systemthe division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations
192389118parasympathetic nervous systemthe division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy
192389119reflexa simple, automatic, inborn response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response
192389120neural networksinterconnected neural cells. With experience, networks can learn, as feedback strengthens or inhibits connections that produce certain results. Computer simulations of neural networks show analogous learning.
192389121refractory period(neurology) the time after a neuron fires or a muscle fiber contracts during which a stimulus will not evoke a response
192389122resting potentialelectrical charge across the cell membrane of a resting neuron
192389123lesionsprecise destruction of brain tissue
192389124electroencephalograman amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.
192389125CT scana series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body.
192389126PETusing a computerized radiographic technique to examine the metabolic activity in various tissues (especially in the brain)
192389127MRIa technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain
192389128brainstemThe oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions
192389129medullathe base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing
192389130reticular formationa nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal
192389131thalamusthe brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla
192389132cerebellumthe "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; it helps coordinate voluntary movement and balance
192389133limbic systema doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex. Includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus.
192389134amygdalatwo almond-shaped neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion
192389135hypothalamusa neural structure lying below the thalamus; directs eating, drinking, body temperature; helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion
192389136cerebral cortexthe intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center
192389137glial cellscells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons
192389138frontal lobesthe portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments
192389139parietal lobesthe portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position
192389140occipital lobesthe portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes the visual areas, which receive visual information from the opposite visual field
192389141temporal lobesthe portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each of which receives auditory information primarily from the opposite ear
192389142motor cortexan area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements
192389143sensory cortexthe area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations
192389144association areasareas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking
192389145aphasiaimpairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to wernicke's area (impairing understanding)
192389146Broca's areacontrols language expression-an aread of the frontal, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech
192389147Wernicke's areacontrols language reception-a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression;usually in the left temporal lobe
192389148plasticitythe brain's capacity for modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage (especially in children) and in experiments on the effects of experience on brain development
192389149corpus callosumthe large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them
192389150split braina condition in which the two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the connecting fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) between them
192389151endocrine systemthe body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
192389152hormoneschemical messengers, mostly those manufactured by the endocrine glands, that are produced in one tissue and affect another
192389153adrenal glandsa pair of endocrine glands just above the kidneys. the adrenals secrete the hormones epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline), which help to arouse the body in times of stress.
192389154pituitary glandthe endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands
192389155cerebrumarea of the brain responsible for all voluntary activities of the body
192389156hippocampusa neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage
192389157homeostasisprocess by which organisms maintain a relatively stable internal environment
192389158inhibitory inputsInformation entering a neuron signaling it not to fire.
Powered by Quizlet.com

Campbell's Biology Ninth Edition: Chapter 9: Cellular Respiration and Fermentation Flashcards

Vocabulary and quiz questions over cellular respiration and fermentation.

Terms : Hide Images
981117981Proton-Motive ForceThe potential energy stored in the form of an electrochemical gradient, generated by the pumping of hydrogen ions across biological membranes during chemiosmosis.
981117982ATP SynthaseCopies of a protein complex found in the inner membrane of the mitrochondrion that make ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate.
981117983Oxidative PhosphorylationThe production of ATP using energy derived from the redox reactions of an electron transport chain.
981117984Citric Acid CycleA chemical cycle involving eight steps that completes the metabolic breakdown of glucose molecules by oxidizing a derivative of pyruvate to carbon dioxide; occurs within the mitochondrion; the second major stage in cellular respiration.
981117985Oxidizing AgentThe electron acceptor in a redox reaction.
981117986Reducing AgentThe electron donor in a redox reaction.
981117987Cellular RespirationProcess that releases energy by breaking down glucose and other food molecules in the presence of oxygen
981117988Aerobic RespirationRespiration in which oxygen is consumed and glucose is broken down entirely; water, carbon dioxide, and large amounts of ATP are the final products
981617399Summary equation for cellular respiration.C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + energy
981617400Redox ReactionsA chemical reaction involving the transfer of one or more electrons from one reactant to another; also called oxidation-reduction reaction.
981617401OxidationA reaction involving the loss of electrons by an element.
981617402ReductionA reaction involving the gain of electrons by an element.
981617403NAD⁺(nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) an organic molecule that serves as an electron carrier by being oxidized to NAD+ and reduced to NADH
981617404Electron Transport Chain (ETC)A sequence of electron carrier molecules (membrane proteins) that shuttle electrons during the redox reactions that release energy used to make ATP.
981617405GlycolysisCatabolism of glucose or other monosaccharides to pyruvate and 2 molecules of ATP in the absence of oxygen or 34 molecules of ATP in the presence of oxygen.
981617406Substrate-Level PhosphorylationThe formation of ATP by directly transferring a phosphate group to ADP from an intermediate substrate in catabolism.
981617407Acetyl CoAAcetyl coenzyme A; the entry compound for the citric acid cycle in cellular respiration, formed from a fragment of pyruvate attached to a coenzyme.
981617408FermentationA partial degradation of sugars that occurs without the use of oxygen
981617409CytochromesAn iron-containing protein, a component of electron transport chains in mitochondria and chloroplasts.
981617410ChemiosmosisAn energy-coupling mechanism that uses energy stored in the form of a hydrogen ion gradient across a membrane to drive cellular work, such as the synthesis of ATP. Most ATP synthesis in cells occurs by chemiosmosis.
981617411Alcohol FermentationThe conversion of pyruvate to carbon dioxide and ethyl alcohol.
981617412Lactic Acid FermentationGlycolysis is followed by the breakdown of the 3 carbon pyruvate into 2 lactic acid molecules with no release of carbon dioxide.
981617413Obligate AnaerobesAn organism that only carries out fermentation or anaerobic respiration. Such organisms cannot use oxygen and in fact may be poisoned by it.
981617414Facultative AnaerobesAn organism that makes ATP by aerobic respiration if oxygen is present but that switches to fermentation under anaerobic conditions.
981617415Beta OxidationA metabolic sequence that breaks fatty acids down to two-carbon fragments which enter the Krebs cycle as acetyl CoA.
981617416When an individual is exercising heavily and when the muscle becomes oxygen-deprived, muscle cells convert pyruvate to lactate. What happens to the lactate in skeletal muscle cells?It is taken to the liver and converted back to pyruvate.
981617417In vertebrate animals, brown fat tissue's color is due to abundant blood vesses and paillaries. White fat tissue, on the other hand, is specialized for fat storage and contains relatively few blood vessels or capillaries. Brown fat cells have a specialized protein that dissipates the proton-motive force across the mitochondrial membranes. What might the function of the brown fat tissue be?To regulate temperature by converting most of the energy from NADH oxidation to heat.
981617418What is the term for metabolic pathways that release stored energy by breaking down complex molecules.Catabolic pathways.
981617419Which process in eukaryotic cells will proceed normally whether O₂ is present or absent?Glycolysis
981617420In addition to ATP, what are the end products of glycolysis?NADH and pyruvate.
981617421Why is glycolysis described as having an investment phase and a payoff phase?It uses stored ATP and then forms a net increase in ATP.
981617422During cellular respiration, acetyl CoA accumulates in which location?Mitochondrial matrix.
984681195How many carbon atoms are fed into the citric acid cycle as a result of the oxidation of one molecule per pyruvate?Two.
984681196During aerobic respiration, electrons travel downhill in what sequence?food → citric acid cycle → electron transport chain → oxygen
984681197In cellular respiration, the energy for most ATP synthesis is supplied bya proton gradient across a membrane.
984681198In chemiosmosis phosphorylation, what is the most diret source of energy that is used to convert ADP + Pi to ATP?Energy released from movement of protons through ATP synthase, down the electrochemical gradient.
984681199What naturally occurs regardless of whether or not O₂ is present?Glycolysis
Powered by Quizlet.com

Apologia Biology Vocabulary - Module 1: Biology, The Study of Life (2nd edition) Flashcards

Vocabulary from Module 1, from Apologia's High School Biology Course Exploring Creation With Biology, by Dr. Jay Wile and Marilyn F. Durnell (2nd edition). There is also a crossword puzzle with these vocabulary words at e-learninglinks.com.

Terms : Hide Images
61424425MetabolismThe sum total of all processes in an organism which convert energy and matter from outside sources and use that energy and matter to sustain the organism's life functions
61424426AnabolismThe sum total of all processes in an organism which use energy and simple chemical building blocks to produce large chemicals and structures necessary for life
61424427CatabolismThe sum total of all processes in an organism which break down chemicals to produce energy and simple chemical building blocks
61424428PhotosynthesisThe process by which green plants and some other organisms use the energy of sunlight and simple chemicals to produce their own food
61424429HerbivoresOrganisms that eat only plants
61424430CarnivoresOrganisms that eat only organisms other than plants
61424431OmnivoresOrganisms that eat both plants and other organisms
61424432ProducersOrganisms that produce their own food
61424433ConsumersOrganisms that eat living producers and/or other consumers for food
61424434DecomposersOrganisms that break down the dead remains of other organisms
61424435AutotrophsOrganisms that are able to make their own food
61424436HeterotrophsOrganisms that depend on other organisms for their food
61424437ReceptorsSpecial structures that allow living organisms to sense the conditions of their internal or external environment
61424438Asexual reproductionReproduction accomplished by a single organism
61424439Sexual reproductionReproduction that requires two organisms
61424440InheritanceThe process by which physical and biological characteristics are transmitted from the parent (or parents) to the offspring
61424441MutationAn abrupt and marked change in the DNA of an organism compared to that of its parents
61424442HypothesisAn educated guess that attempts to explain an observation or answer a question
61424443TheoryA hypothesis that has been tested with a significant amount of data
61424444Scientific lawA theory that has been tested by and is consistent with generations of data
61424445MicroorganismsLiving creatures that are too small to see with the naked eye
61424446AbiogenesisThe idea that long ago, very simple life forms spontaneously appeared through chemical reactions
61424447Prokaryotic cellA cell that has no distinct, membrane-bounded organelles
61424448Eukaryotic cellA cell with distinct, membrane-bounded organelles
61424449SpeciesA unit of one or more populations of individuals that can reproduce under normal conditions, produce fertile offspring, and are reproductively isolated from other such units
61424450TaxonomyThe science of classifying organisms
61424451Binomial nomenclatureNaming an organism with its genus and species name
Powered by Quizlet.com

MEMORY Flashcards

ap psych -- memory chapter.

Terms : Hide Images
42244828memorythe persistence of learning over tie through the storage and retrieval of information.
42244829flashbulb memorya clear memory of an emotionally significan moment or event
42244830encodingthe processing of informatin into the memory system - for example, by extracting meaning.
42244831storagethe retention of encoded information over.
42244832retrievalthe process of getting information out of memory storage
42244833sensory memorythe immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system.
42244834short-term memoryactivated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten.
42244835long-term memorythe relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system.
42244836working memorya similar concept that focuses more on the processing of briefly stored information.
42244837automatic processingunconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings.
42244838effortful processingencoding that requires attention and conscious effort.
42244839rehearsalthe conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage.
42244840spacing effectthe tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study.
42244841serial position effectour tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list
42244842semantic encodingthe encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words.
42244843acoustic encodingthe encoding of sound, especially the sound of words.
42244844visual encodingthe encoding of picture images.
42244845imagerymental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding
42244846mnemonicsmemory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
42244847chunkingorganizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.
42247503episodic memorymemories of specific events, stored in sequential series of events
42247504procedural memorymemories of skills and how to perform them. These memories are sequential but might be very complicated to describe in words.
42918431iconic memorya slip-second perfect photograph of a scene
42918432echoic memorya perfect brief (3-4 seconds) memory for sounds.
42918433selective attentionencoding what is important to us, sometimes not controlled
42918434cocktail party effectability to attend to only one voice among many
42918435explicit memorieswhat we usually think of first, conscious memories of fancts or events we actively tried to remember
42918436implicit memoriesunintentional memories that we might not even realize we have
42918437eidetic memorythe ability to remember with great accuracy visual information on the basis of short-term exposure
42918438recognitionmatching a current event or fact with one already in your memory.
42918439primacy effectrecall items presented at the beginning of a list
42918440recency effectrecall items at the end of a list
42918441tip of the tongue phenomenontemporary inability to remember information
42918442semantic network theoryconnecting their meaning and contest with meanings already in memory. Thus our brains create a web of connected memories.
42918443mood congruent memorygreather likeliehood of recalling an item when our mood matched the mood we were in when the event happend.
42918444state dependent memoryrecalling events encoded while in particular states of consciousness.
42918445recovered memorysuddenly remember events they have "repressed" for years.
42918446constructed memoryreport false details of a real event or might even be a recollection of an event that never occurred.
42918447relearning effectit takes you less time than it did the first tiime you studied them
42918448interferenceother memories competes with what you are trying to recall.
42918449retroactive interferencelearning new information interferes with the recall of older information
42918450proactive interferenceolder information learned previously interferes with the recall of information learned more recently.
42918451hippocampusimportant in encoding new memories
42918452anterograde amnesiacannont encode new memories but they can learn new skills, but they wont remember learning them.
42918453long-term potentiationshows that neurons can strenthen connections between eachother
42918454phonemesthe smallest units of sound used in a language. English speakers use about 44 phonemes
42918455morphemessmallest unit of a meaningful sound.
42918456language acquisitionbabbling stage which is innate at 6 months of age.
42918457holophrastic stagetime during which babies speak in single words
42918458overgeneralization/overregularizzationmisapplication of grammer rules
42918459language acquistion deviceability to learn a language rapidly as children
42918460critical perioda window of opportunity during which we must learn a skill or our develpment will permanently suffer
42918461linguistic relativity hypothesislanguage we use might control and sometimes limit our thinking.
Powered by Quizlet.com

Psychology Unit 3- Memory Flashcards

Psychology Unit 3: The Conscious Self
Area of Study 2: Memory
Study Design:
1. Mechanism of memory formation:
- Neurons in memory formation including the role of axons, dendrites, synapses and neurotransmitters
- Role of the temporal lobe including the hippocampus and the amygdala
- Consolidation theory
- Memory decline over the lifespan
- Amnesia resulting from brain trauma and neurodegenerative diseases including dementia and Alzheimer's disease
2. Models for explaining human memory:
- Atkinson-Shiffrin's multi-store model of memory including maintenance and elaborative rehearsal, serial position effect and chunking
- Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch's model of working memory: central executive, phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad, episodic buffer
- Levels of processing as informed by Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart
- Organisation of long-term memory including declarative (episodic and semantic) and procedural memory, and semantic network theory
3. Strengths and limitations of theories of forgetting:
- Forgetting curve as informed by the work of Hermann Ebbinghaus
- Retrieval failure theory including tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
- Interference theory
- Motivated forgetting as informed by the work of Sigmund Freud including repression and suppression
- Decay theory
4. Manipulation and improvement of memory:
- Measures of retention including the relative sensitivity of recall, recognition and relearning
- Use of context dependent cues and state dependent cues
- Mnemonic devices including acronyms, acrostics and narrative chaining
- Effect of misleading questions on eye-witness testimonies including the reconstructive nature of memory informed by the work of Elizabeth Loftus

Terms : Hide Images
878352877Motor NeuronCarry neural information about movement away from the brain and spinal cord, towards the body, enabling movement.
878352878Sensory NeuronCarry neural information about the senses away from the body, towards the spinal cord and brain.
878352879InterneuronConnect sensory neurons with motor neurons. They exist only in the spinal cord and brain.
878352880AxonNerve fibre which transmits an electrical impulse with information from that neuron to other neurons or to the cells of a muscle, gland or organ
878352881DendritesThe extension of the nerve (resembles a branch) that receives information from other neurons
878352882SynapseThe gap between two neurons
878352883NeurotransmitterChemicals that help the communication across nerve synapses.
878352884Cell bodyContains the nucleus within the nerve cell
878352885TerminalsExtensions of the axon where information is transmitted to other neurons
878352886Role of the Hippocampus- Plays a major role in memory, learning and recognition. - Involved in the formation of new long-term memories. - They are NOT storage sites - Important for forming explicit memory and for difficult tasks which draw upon declarative memory - Involved in establishing the background or context for each new memory, such as the location, situation and memory for places. - Damage to this area: people can often remember events that occurred BEFORE the damage, but cannot form new long-term memories of events that occurred after the damage.
878352887Role of the Amygdala- Regulates emotions such as fear and aggression and plays a more general role in the formation of emotional memory. - Major role in the memory for emotions shown on faces, which is important because the emotions it regulates enhance the memorability of an event which is stated as declarative memory.
879423599Consolidation Theory- A theory that proposes that memory is permanently stored in the brain through a process where there are physical changes to neurons. - Consolidation takes 30 minutes, so the material learned is vulnerable to disruption for at least 30 minutes. If the consolidation process is interrupted, then consolidation does not occur and the item will not be stored in LTM. - Research shows that mental inactivity assists in consolidation. Forgetting is reduced when the learner sleeps between learning and recalling.
879423600Memory Decline over the Lifespan- Memory decline is not inevitable for all people - Individuals who constantly use their memory and engage in mentally challenging activities experience less memory decline. Motivation and confidence also play a major role. Long-Term Memory - Episodic memory declines sharply after middle age - Semantic memory tasks is equal to that of younger people, however, the speed of encoding and retrieval of semantic memory can decline. - Procedural memory does not decline much Short-Term Memory - Verbal recency memory (memory for recently learnt verbal info) is most affected by ageing. - Visual recency memory (memory for recent visual info) is less likely to be affected by age. - Complex working memory tasks (e.g. saying a string of digits backwards, dividing one's attention while ignoring distractions) is likely to be affected by age. - The prefrontal cortex (responsible for working memory) is less active and efficient in old age
879423601Amnesia- Any loss of memory, either partial or complete, temporary or permanent. - Amnesia can be caused by any reason associated with brain trauma: * Inflicted brain injury. E.g. A deliberate blow to the head * Acquired brain injury. E.g. Accidents, brain infection - Two common kinds of amnesia: Anterograde and Retrograde Amnesia
879423602Anterograde Amnesia- Memory loss for events AFTER the brain is damaged. - Inability to encode and store new memories. - Often associated with damage to the hippocampus. - Typically, people can retrieve memories they had prior to the trauma but cannot learn anything new. - This amnesia is commonly associated with Alzheimer's disease.
879423603Retrograde Amnesia- Loss of memory for events that occurred BEFORE the brain is damaged. - Patients usually have no memory of the period just prior to the injury, but sometimes the amnesia can go back several years. - Often caused by a blow to the head, strokes, surgery and Alzheimer's disease. - Older memories are less affected and usually return first.
879423604Dementia- A disorder characterised by deterioration of higher mental functions such as thinking ability, social skills and emotional responses. - Dementia usually develops over a number of years, gradually worsening - It is NOT a part of the ageing process - Can be caused by disease or brain damage, many neurodegenerative which are irreversible.
879423605Alzheimer's Disease- Neurodegenerative disease causing gradual, severe memory loss, deterioration in cognitive and social skills leading to death 8-10 years after onset. - It involves both anterograde and retrograde amnesia because the disease affects both the hippocampus and the prefrontal cortex.
879423606MemoryAn active information-processing system that receives, stores, organises, alters and retrieves information. MEMORY PERFORMS THREE FUNCTIONS: 1. ENCODING 2. STORAGE 3. RETRIEVAL
879423607EncodingConverting incoming sensory information into a form that can be stored and represented, in some form - sound, visual image, touch or meaning.
879423608StorageThe retention of information over time.
879423609RetrievalLocating and recovering the stored information from memory so that we are consciously aware of it.
879423610Atkinson-Shiffrin's Multi-Store Model of MemoryAccording to this model of memory, there are 3 separate levels of memory that interact with one another to enable encoding, storage and retrieval: 1. Sensory Memory 2. Short Term Memory 3. Long Term Memory
879423611Sensory Memory- The entry point for all new information into memory from the external environment - We have a sensory store for each of the five senses. - Transferred to short term memory store if attended to but decays and disappears if not attended to - Capacity = UNLIMITED - Duration = 0.2 - 4 seconds Two examples of sensory memory: - ICONIC memory (The temporary store for information that is received from the visual system. 0.2-0.4 seconds) - ECHOIC memory (Auditory information held in sensory memory for a brief period after the stimulus has ceased. 3- 4 seconds)
879423612Short Term Memory- Second, most active memory system. - Limited storage capacity in which information is stored for a short period. - Stores information temporarily, but longer than SENSORY memory. - When capacity is reached, new information can only be added by pushing out old information. - Capacity = limited to 7 ± 2 bits of information - Duration = approximately 18 - 20 seconds
879423613Long Term Memory- Relatively permanent memory system that holds vast amounts of information for a very long time, possibly a life time. - Information is organised to meaning. - Transferred into LTM through REHEARSAL. - CAPACITY: Virtually unlimited - DURATION: Up to a lifetime - relatively permanent Types of long-term memory : 1. Procedural memory 2. Declarative memory (episodic and semantic memory)
879423615RehearsalThe process of actively manipulating information so that it can be retained in memory. There are two types of rehearsal: 1. Maintenance 2. Elaborative
879423616Maintenance Rehearsal- Involves repeating the information being remembered over and over again to retain it in STM - Pro => Allows information to be stored in STM for longer than normal. Very effective for storing meaningless information. - Con => Does not add to understanding. Restricts entry of new information to STM, and when there is new entry, it is easily interrupted. Limited effectiveness in transferring information from STM to LTM
879423617Elaborative Rehearsal- Linking new information in a meaningful way with already stored, or other new information - Involves more complex mental consideration of the material to be remembered than simply repeating it, and usually involves associating it with information already contained in long-term memory. - Pro => Increases understanding, which means deeper processing level. Adds more details, which increases the chance of retrieval and makes information more accessible. Increases possibility of long term retention. - Con => Takes longer and requires more conscious effort than maintenance. Relies on ability to retrieve information from LTM. Difficult to practise when information entering STM keeps changing.
879423618The Serial Position Effect- The finding that the recall of items in the serial list tends to be better at the beginning and end of the list than for items in the middle of the list. Findings: - If recall occurs immediately after the list is learned, items at the beginning of the list are remembered well (primacy effect) because they received more attention and rehearsal and are therefore transferred into long term memory. The last few items are also remembered well (recency effect) because they are still in short term memory. Items in the middle of the list are most likely forgotten because there is too much information in STM to allow any more. (7 + 2 items)
879423614Chunking- The grouping or 'packing' of separate bits of information into a larger single unit or 'chunk' of information. - Increasing STM's capacity
879423619Primacy Effect- Superior recall of items at the BEGINNING of the list. - These items have been rehearsed more and therefore, more likely to enter LTM.
879423620Recency Effect- Superior recall of items at the END of the list. - Items are still in STM => increase in rehearsal and retrieval chances.
879423621Baddeley and Hitch's Model of Working Memory- They viewed working memory as a more complex processing system - Proposed that working memory is made up of four components: 1. Central Executive 2. Phonological Loop 3. Visuospatial Sketchpad 4. Episodic Buffer
879423624Central Executive- The main co-ordinating system. - Monitors, coordinates and integrates information from the other two sub-systems and LTM. - Plays a major role in attention; plays the 'decider' role. - In everyday life, the central executive helps you decide what to do next and what not to do. - It has a limited capacity.
879423622Phonological Loop- Stores and rehearses speech information. - By actively rehearsing sound based information, it allows verbal information to prevent its loss when we are speaking. Contains 2 subsystems: 1. The Inner Voice - Sub-vocal rehearsal method. Holds information for approx. 1.5 - 2 seconds by silently repeating. 2. The Inner Ear - Holds speech for approx. 1.5 - 2 seconds, then fades unless silent repetition.
879423623Visuospatial Sketchpad- The 'INNER EYE' - Temporarily stores VISUAL and SPATIAL information - E.G. the location and nature of objects in the environment - Has a limited capacity.
879423625Episodic BufferBriefly stores a limited amount of information from phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad with information retrieved from LTM.
879423626Craik and Lockhart's Levels of Processing- This model of memory storage suggests that memory does not comprise any specific number of separate memory stores but instead is a continuous dimension in which memories are encoded related to the ease with which they can be retrieved: the deeper the processing of information, the greater the chance of it being retrieved. Types of processing: 1. STRUCTURAL - SHALLOW 2. ACOUSTIC - MODERATE 3. SEMANTIC - DEEP
879423627Levels of ProcessingRefers to the number and types of associations made between new knowledge and previous knowledge
879423628Structural ProcessingWords are learnt by remembering their physical features, such as whether they were in upper or lower case, started with a vowel or consonant, or were long or short.
879423629Acoustic ProcessingWords are learnt by their sounds.
879423630Semantic ProcessingWords are encoded by their meaning, which allows them to be placed directly in our semantic networks.
879423632Declarative memory- Knowledge of facts and events. - Enables you to 'declare' the way you believe things to be, or to state that a particular event took place. Divided into two types of long-term memories: 1. Episodic memory- Refers to your memory for past events or episodes, such as how you felt on your first day of high school, or what you ate for lunch yesterday. 2. Semantic memory- Refers to knowledge of facts about the world, including general knowledge, word meanings and associated concepts.
879423631Procedural Memory- Knowledge of how to perform certain skills and procedures, such as cleaning teeth, using a pencil, riding a bicycle or swimming. - Once these skills are well established, they do not require much conscious effort to recall, and they are resistant to forgetting.
879423633Semantic Network Theory- Proposes that information in LTM is organised in a hierarchical structure with links between related concepts, or nodes - When we retrieve information, the activation of one node causes other related nodes to be activated
879423634Spreading Activation- Proposes that activating one node during retrieval increases the likelihood that associated nodes become activated - The short the links between the nodes in the network, the stronger the association between them and means that less time is needed to activate related nodes - The more nodes that are activated, the quicker the retrieval of information from LTM
886195124ForgettingThe inability to remember; including the inability to retrieve, recall or recognise information that was previously stored as memory.
886195125The Forgetting CurveA graph that shows the typical rate (how fast) and amount (how much) of forgetting occurs after varying lengths of time. It shows that forgetting is rapid soon after original learning, then the rate of memory gradually declines, followed by stability in the memories that remain. Results: After 20 minutes - recall was 58% After 1 hour - retention was 44% 1 day later - recall was 34% 1 week later - recall was around 21%
886195127Retrieval Failure TheoryAsserts that forgetting results from a failure to use appropriate retrieval cues. Forgetting may be due to an inability to retrieve information, rather than being due to the loss of information.
886195126Retrieval CuesAny bit of information that aids the process of locating and recovering information stored in memory. It acts as a prompt or a hint that guides the search and recovery process.
886195128Tip-of-the-tongue PhenomenonKnowing that your memory does have the name, item or material you are trying to remember but you just cannot retrieve it at that moment.
886195129Interference TheoryFailure to retrieve particular information due to the disrupting effects of other information. Applies to STM & LTM. It is assumed that forgetting occurs as a result of the material being retrieved becoming confused with other information in memory. There are 2 kinds of interference: retroactive and proactive.
886195130Retroactive InterferenceNewly learnt material inhibits our ability to retrieve previously learnt material. Interference goes 'back.'
886195131Proactive InterferenceInterference due to existing, old memories disrupting the recollection of more recently formed memories
886195132Motivated ForgettingForgetting occurs because of an unconscious or conscious desire to block out painful or threatening memories. This type of forgetting can occur in two forms: repression & suppression. Con => It has not been extensively tested in the labs, and there could be other reasons for memory loss.
886195133RepressionA form of forgetting that happens UNCONSCIOUSLY or without our awareness. Painful, embarrassing or threatening memories are held out of consciousness.
886195134SupressionA CONSCIOUS refusal to access memories which are available. By not thinking about it, we have suppressed a memory. Some adults have reported they have suddenly remembered abuse which occurred when they were children, even though many years may have elapsed since.
886195135Decay theoryMemory traces gradually fading or disintegrating with lack of use over time. Decay appears to be a factor in information loss from sensory and STM. Con => Disuse does not seem to account for our ability to recover forgotten memories. Evidence that contradicts the idea of decay from LTM is the fact that we can sometimes recall old memories despite not having retrieved the memory for many years.
886223369Measures of RetentionA method of measuring the amount of information retained in memory. The 3 measures are recall, recognition and relearning.
886223370RecallInvolves being asked to reproduce information with the fewest possible cues to assist retrieval. During recall, we use a general cue to retrieve information associated with the cue by searching through our long term memory storage system to find something that matches the cue. It is the least sensitive measure of memory
886223371Free RecallInvolves participants simply asked to remember as much information as they can, in no particular order
886223372Serial RecallInvolves participants being asked to recall a list of words in the order in which they were presented
886223373Cued RecallInvolves making use of more specific cues to aid retrieval
886223374RecognitionInvolves identifying the correct information from among alternatives. We can retrieve more information when tested by the recognition method than the recall method because the recognition method provides more cues that assist in the locating and retrieval of information from LTM.
886223375RelearningInvolves learning information again that has been previously learned and stored in LTM. Typically, relearning something takes less time than it did to learn originally. It is the most sensitive measure of memory.
886223376Context-Dependent CuesEnvironmental Cues in a specific context (setting), where a memory was formed, which acts as a retrieval cue. May include sight, sound, smell.
886223377State-Dependent CuesAssociated with internal physiological and/or psychological state at the time the memory was formed, which acts as retrieval cues to help access those memories. E.g. if information learned when you are sad, that information is more likely to be retrieved when you are in the same state.
886223378Mnemonic DevicesTechniques for enhancing or improving memory. They make use of information that is already stored in LTM and make it more elaborate. They tend to organise new information into a cohesive whole, so that retrieval part of the information generally assists retrieval of the rest of it. Include: acronyms, acrostics and narrative chaining
886223379AcronymsPronounceable words formed from the first letters of a sequence of words. They are often pronounceable abbreviations. e.g. WHO (World Health Organisation). Acts as a retrieval aid in the recall of more complex material.
886223380AcrosticsInvolves making verbal associations for items to be remembered by constructing phrases or sentences using the first letters of the informations to be remembered.
886223381Narrative ChainingInvolves linking otherwise unrelated words to one another (sequence) to form a meaningful sequence or story (narrative). Very useful mnemonic device to remember things in a particular order
886223382Leading QuestionA question that has content or is phrased in such way as to suggest what answer us desired or to lead to the desired answer.
Powered by Quizlet.com

Pages

Subscribe to CourseNotes RSS

Need Help?

We hope your visit has been a productive one. If you're having any problems, or would like to give some feedback, we'd love to hear from you.

For general help, questions, and suggestions, try our dedicated support forums.

If you need to contact the Course-Notes.Org web experience team, please use our contact form.

Need Notes?

While we strive to provide the most comprehensive notes for as many high school textbooks as possible, there are certainly going to be some that we miss. Drop us a note and let us know which textbooks you need. Be sure to include which edition of the textbook you are using! If we see enough demand, we'll do whatever we can to get those notes up on the site for you!