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Sensation & Perception - AP Psychology Flashcards

Terms from unit on Sensation and Perception in AP Psychology. (Myers for AP 2e)

11655430334	sensation	the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment.	0
11655430335	perception	the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information; enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events.	1
11655430336	bottom-up processing	analysis that begins with the sense receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information.	2
11655430337	top-down processing	information processing guided by higher-level mental process, as when we construct perceptions drawing out our experience and expectation.	3
11655430338	psychophysics	the study of relationship between the physical characteristic of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them.	4
11655430339	absolute threshold	the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time.	5
11655430340	signal detection theory	a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimuli ("signal") amid background stimulation ("noise"). Assumes that there is no single absolute threshold and that focuses more on the processing of briefly stored information. (e.g. what determines a "hit", "miss," "false alarm" or "correct rejection")	6
11655430341	difference threshold	the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time; also referred to as just noticeable difference (JND)	7
11655430342	subliminal sensation	detection of stimuli below absolute threshold	8
11655430343	Weber's law	the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount).	9
11655430344	sensory adaptation	diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation.	10
11655430345	transduction	conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies into neural impulses.	11
11655430346	wavelength	the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next.	12
11655430347	amplitude	height of a wave; influences brightness in visual perception and volume in audition	13
11655430348	hue	the dimension of color that is determine by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth.	14
11655430349	pupil	the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters.	15
11655430350	iris	a ring of muscle tissue that forms the color portions of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening.	16
11655430351	lens	the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina.	17
11655430352	accommodation	the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina.	18
11655430353	retina	the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information.	19
11655430354	rods	Retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond.	20
11655430355	cones	Receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. They detect fine details and give rise to color sensation.	21
11655430356	optic nerve	the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain.	22
11655430357	blind spot	the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye; no receptors cells are located there. Creates a gap in our vision that is "filled" by the brain.	23
11655430358	fovea	the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster.	24
11655430359	feature detectors	nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimuli, such as shape, angle, or movement.	25
11655430360	parallel processing	the processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrast with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.	26
11655430361	Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic theory	the theory that the retina contains three different colors receptors-one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue-which when stimulated in combination can produce the perception of any color.	27
11655430362	Opponent-Process theory	the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision; useful for explaining the phenomenon of "after-images"	28
11655430363	color constancy	perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the objects.	29
11655430364	audition	the sense of hearing	30
11655430365	frequency	the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time; determines perception of hue in light and of pitch in sound	31
11655430366	pitch	sound information that depends on frequency (or wavelength) of sound waves	32
11655430367	middle ear	the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window.	33
11655430368	inner ear	the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs.	34
11655430369	Place Theory	in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated.	35
11655430370	frequency theory	in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch.	36
11655430371	conduction hearing loss	hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea.	37
11655430372	sensorineural hearing loss	hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptors cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness.	38
11655430373	gate-control theory	the theory that the spinal cord contains neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is open by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming form the brain.	39
11655430374	kinesthesia	the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts; enabled by feedback from proprioceptors (which provide info about the movement of muscles, tendons, joints); also called "proprioception"	40
11655430375	vestibular sense	the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance; enabled by feedback from semicircular canals in inner ear	41
11655430376	hair cells	finger-like projections on the basilar membrane that stimulate activity of the auditory nerve	42
11655430377	cochlea	snail-shaped tube in the inner ear that contains fluid that moves in response to vibrations, stimulating activity on the basilar membrane	43
11655430378	basilar membrane	area within the cochlea where hair cells are located	44
11655430379	semicircular canals	fluid filled tubes in inner ear that provide information about movement of the head	45
11655430380	Ernst Weber	early psychologist who established that the proportion of difference (rather than absolute difference) between two stimuli that is required for distinguishing between them is constant for particular types of sensation (e.g. weight, brightness, etc).	46
11655430381	Gustav Fechner	often credited with founding "psychophysics" as a subfield of psychology; studied afterimages	47
11655430382	David Hubel & Torsten Wiesel	Nobel-prize-winning researchers who discovered "feature detectors" within the brain	48
11655430383	cochlear implant	a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea	49
11655430384	sensory interaction	the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences taste	50
11655430385	synaesthesia	when one sort of sensation (such as hearing a sound) produces another (such as seeing color)	51
11655430386	olfaction	sense of smell	52
11655430387	prosopagnosia	inability to recognize or perceive faces	53
11655430388	gestalt	a perceptual whole; derived from German word meaning "form" or "whole"	54
11655430389	subliminal	literally, "below threshold"; stimuli too weak to be consistently detected	55
11655430390	selective attention	ability to attend to only a limited amount of sensory information at one time	56
11655430391	cocktail party effect	ability to selectively attend to one voice among many	57
11655430392	figure-ground	A gestalt perceptual phenomenon; the organization of the visual field into objects that stand out from their surroundings	58
11655430393	grouping	the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups	59
11655430394	proximity	Gestalt grouping principle; we group nearby figures together	60
11655430395	similarity	Gestalt grouping principle; we group similar figures together	61
11655430396	continuity	Gestalt grouping principle; our tendency to perceive smooth, continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones	62
11655430397	connectedness	Gestalt grouping principle; when objects uniform (in color or texture) are linked (no space exists between them) we perceive them as a single unit	63
11655430398	closure	Gestalt grouping principle; we fill in "gaps" to create a full, complete object	64
11655430399	depth perception	the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance	65
11655430400	visual cliff	laboratory device for testing depth perception among infants and young animals; its use demonstrated that, among most species, animals have the ability to perceive depth by the time they are mobile	66
11655430401	binocular cues	depth cues that require the combined input of both eyes	67
11655430402	monocular cues	depth cues that only require input from one eye; often used in 2D art to create illusion of depth	68
11655430403	retinal disparity	a binocular cue for perceiving depth; by comparing the images of the retinas of the two eyes, the brain computes distance. The greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object	69
11655430404	convergence	a binocular cue for perceiving depth; the more the eyes strain to turn inwards to view an object, the closer the object is (note: only a factor at close ranges)	70
11655430405	Wolfgang Kohler	credited with founding Gestalt Psychology	71
11655430406	relative height	monocular cue for depth perception; we perceive objects higher in our visual field to be farther away. Explanation for why the "bottom" of a figure-ground illusion usually is interpreted as the "figure"	72
11655430407	relative size	monocular cue for depth perception; if we assume two objects are similar in size, most people perceive the one that casts the smaller retinal image to be farther away	73
11655430408	interposition	monocular cue for depth perception; if one object partially blocks our view of another object, we perceive it as closer	74
11655430409	linear perspective	monocular cue for depth perception; parallel lines, such as railroad tracks, appear to converge with distance. The more they converge, the greater the perceived distance	75
11655430410	light and shadow	monocular cue for depth perception; nearby objects reflect more light to our eyes...thus, given two identical objects, the dimmer one seems farther away. Also, shading produces a sense of depth consistent with our assumption that light comes from above.	76
11655430411	relative motion	monocular cue for depth perception; as we move, stationary objects seem to "move" as well. Objects above a fixation point move "with" us, objects below the fixation point move "past" us.	77
11655430412	relative clarity	monocular cue for depth perception; objects that seem "fuzzier" or less clear are perceived to be farther away.	78
11655430413	texture gradient	monocular cue for depth perception; a gradual change from course, distinct texture to fine, indistinct texture signals increasing distance	79
11655430414	phi phenomenon	an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in rapid succession	80
11655430415	stroboscopic movement	the brain's perception of continuous movement in a rapid series of slightly varying images; this is how we perceive motion in film and animation	81
11655430416	perceptual constancy	perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent shapes, size, lightness, and color) even as illumination and retinal images change	82
11655430417	perceptual adaptation	the ability to adjust to an altered perceptual reality; in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or inverted visual field (as when wearing visual displacement goggles).	83
11655430418	perceptual set	mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another (for example, due to suggestion or expectations based on prior learning)	84
11655430419	extrasensory perception (ESP)	the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input; includes telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition	85
11655430420	parapsychology	the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis	86
11655430421	telepathy	mind-to-mind communication; a person sending thoughts to another or perceiving another's thoughts	87
11655430422	clairvoyance	perceiving remote events, such as sensing that a friend's house is on fire	88
11655430423	precognition	perceiving future events, such as a political leader's death or a sporting event's outcome	89
11655430424	psychokinesis	ability to move objects with one's mind	90
11655430425	Ganzfeld procedure	laboratory procedure used to test powers of extrasensory perception by reducing the distractions of other sensory information (e.g. noise cancelling headphones, ping-pong balls over the eyes, etc.)	91
11655430426	visual capture	the phenomenon that occurs when vision overtakes some other, conflicting sensory input	92
11655430427	change blindness	when paying attention to a specific aspect of a visual scene, we may fail to notice other fairly obvious changes or presentations of stimuli; demonstrated by the door study and the gorilla illusion	93
11655430428	McGurk effect	the same sound (e.g. "ba") can be perceived differently (e.g. "pa" or "fa") when the visual image of the mouth pronouncing it is changed; a classic example of "visual capture"	94
11655430429	bipolar cells	second layer of neurons in the retina that transmit impulses from rods and cones to ganglion cells; rods share these, but cones do not	95
11655430430	retinal ganglion cells	the third layer of retinal neurons whose axons leave the eyeball and form the optic nerve.	96
11655430431	gustation	sense of taste	97
11655430432	embodied cognition	in psychological science, the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgments	98
11655430433	priming	Activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response	99
11655430434	nociceptors	Nerve endings that signal the sensation of pain.	100

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AP World History - Chapter 14 Flashcards

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8849795310	1. What motivated European involvement in the world of Asian commerce?	The desire for tropical spices, Chinese silk, Indian cottons, rhubarb for medicinal purposes, emeralds, rubies, and sapphires were in great demand. the general recovery of European civilization following the disaster of the Black Death in the early 14th century European resentment of the Muslim monopoly of the flow of Indian Ocean products to Europe, and the dislike of Venice's role as intermediary in the trade to continue the Crusades by joining with the mysterious Christian monarch Prester John the need to get gold and silver to pay for the Asian spices and textiles they desired (Original: p. 434-435; With Sources: pp. 674-675)	0
8849795311	2. To what extent did the Portuguese realize their own goals in the Indian Ocean? (What did they create? Did they get to their goal? What was the outcome?)	Their original goal of creating a trading post empire that controlled the commerce of the Indian Ocean was at best only partially realized. They never succeeded in controlling much more than half the spice trade to Europe, and by 1600, their trading post empire was in steep decline. (Original: p. 437; With Sources: p. 677)	1
8849795312	3. The Portuguese gradually blended into the local populations of their strongholds in the Indian Ocean Basin. What was one main difference between the Spanish colonization of the Philippines and the Portuguese?	The Spanish converted Filipinos to Christianity. (Original: p. 439; With Sources: p. 679)	2
8849795313	4. To what extent did the British and Dutch trading companies change the societies they encountered in Asia? (Original: p. 439-440; With Sources: pp. 679-680)	Dutch British ▪The Dutch acted to control—not only the shipping but also the production of cloves, cinnamon, nutmeg, and mace. With much bloodshed, the Dutch seized control of a number of small spice-producing islands, forcing their people to sell only to the Dutch. ▪ On the Banda Islands—the Dutch killed, enslaved, or left to starve virtually the entire population and then replaced them with Dutch planters, using a slave labor force to produce the nutmeg crop. ▪ They established—three major trading settlements in India during the 17th century: Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras. They secured their trading bases with the permission of Mughal authorities or local rulers. ▪ British traders focused on—Indian cotton textiles, and hundreds of villages in the interior of southern India became specialized producers for the British market. ▪ Ultimately, the local economy of the Spice Islands was shattered by Dutch policies, and the people there were impoverished.	3
8849795314	5. What was Japan's response to the Europeans whom they saw as a threat?	They expelled Christian missionaries and suppressed the practice of Christianity. This policy included the execution, often under torture, of some sixty-two missionaries and thousands of Japanese converts. Authorities also forbade Japanese from traveling abroad and banned most European traders, permitting only the Dutch, who weren't interested in spreading Christianity. (Original: p. 441; With Sources: p. 681)	4
8849795315	6. Why was the silver trade so historically important?	Silver was the first commodity to be exchanged on a global scale sustaining a direct link between the Americas and Asia, and it initiated a web of Pacific commerce that grew steadily over the centuries. (Original: p. 442; With Sources: p. 682)	5
8849795316	7. What impact did the discovery of the world's largest silver mine at Potosi have on the Native American miners?	The city's miners worked in conditions so horrendous that some families held funeral services for men drafted to work the mines. Potosi was a portrait of hell. (Original: p. 443; With Sources: p. 683)	6
8849795317	8. How did the discovery of the vast silver mines in South America affect Spain's position in Europe?	Spain was the envy of its European rivals during the 16th century. Spanish rulers could now pursue military and political ambitions in both Europe and the Americas far beyond the country's own resource base. (Original: p. 443; With Sources: p. 683)	7
8849795318	9. In what ways did the Chinese response to the global silver economy differ from the Japanese response? (Economic changes resulted in ecological devastation in China, but not in Japan.) (Original: p. 444; With Sources: p. 684)	Japan China The shoguns allied with the merchant class to develop a market-based economy and to invest heavily in agricultural and industrial enterprises. Local and state authorities acted to protect and renew forests. Families practiced late marriages, contraception, abortion, and infanticide. In order to obtain silver needed to pay their taxes, more and more people had to sell something—either labor or their products. Areas that devoted themselves to growing mulberry trees, on which silkworms fed, had to buy their rice from other regions. The Chinese economy became more regionally specialized. The outcome was the dramatic slowing of Japan's population growth, the easing of an impending ecological crisis, and a flourishing, highly commercialized economy. In southern China, this surging economic growth resulted in the loss of about half the area's forest cover as more and more land was devoted to cash crops.	8
8849795319	10. What may have increased the demand for furs in the early modern era?	A period of cooling temperatures and harsh winters known as the Little Ice Age (Original: p. 445; With Sources: p. 685)	9
8849795320	11. Describe the impact of the fur trade on North American native societies. (Original: p. 447 With Sources: p. 687)	Positive Impact Negative Impact The fur trade did bring some benefits, including the trade of pelts for goods of real value. It exposed Native Americans to European diseases and generated warfare. It left Native Americans dependent on It enhanced influence and authority for some Native American leaders. It ensured the protection of Native Americans involved in the fur trade, for a time, from the kind of extermination, enslavement, or displacement that was the fate of some native peoples elsewhere in the Americas. European goods without a corresponding ability to manufacture the goods themselves. It brought alcohol into Indian societies, often with destructive effects.	10
8849795321	12. How did the North American and Siberian fur trades differ from each other? What did they have in common?	a) North American fur trades—Several European nations competed in North America and generally obtained their furs through commercial negotiations with Indian societies. No such competition accompanied Russian expansion across Siberia. b) Siberian fur trades—Russian authorities imposed a tax or tribute, payable in furs, on every able-bodied Siberian male between 18 and 50 years of age. To enforce payment, they took hostages from Siberian societies with death as a possible outcome if the required furs weren't forthcoming. Further, there was a large-scale presence of private Russian hunters and trappers, who competed directly with their Siberian counterparts. c) c. Both—trades were driven by the demands of the world market. Both Native Americans and Siberians suffered from new diseases and became dependent on the goods for which they traded furs. (Original: p. 449; With Sources: pp. 685-688)	11
8849795322	13. What was slavery like in the Islamic world?	Preference was for female slaves; some slaves acquired prominent military or political status; most slaves in the pre-modern world worked in their owners' households, farms, or shops, with smaller numbers laboring in largescale agricultural or industrial enterprises. (Original: p. 450; With Sources: p. 690)	12
8849795323	14. What was distinctive about the Atlantic slave trade in the Americas?	the immense size of the traffic in slaves and its centrality to the economies of colonial America New World slavery was largely based on plantation agriculture and treated slaves as a form of dehumanized property, lacking any rights in the society of their owners. Slave status throughout the Americas was inherited across generations, and there was little hope of eventual freedom for the vast majority. most distinctive was the racial dimension—slavery came to be identified wholly with Africa and with "blackness." (Original: p. 450; With Sources: pp. 690-691)	13
8849795324	15. What caused the Atlantic slave trade to grow? Why was slavery a source of labor?	The demand for sugar as a sweetener to replace honey and fruits established sugar plantations and sugar production that required huge capital investment, substantial technology, and huge amounts of labor to do the difficult work. Slaves worked for free. Because there were limitations to serf labor, and because of the immense difficulty and danger associated with the work, there was a general absence of wage workers to do the job. All of this pointed to slavery as a source of labor for sugar plantations. (Original: p. 451; With Sources: p. 691)	14
8849795325	16. Why did Africa become the primary source of slave labor for plantation economies of the Americas?	The supply of Slavic slaves were cut-off and no longer available; Native Americans quickly perished from European diseases; marginal Europeans were Christians and therefore supposedly exempt from slavery; and indentured servants were expensive and temporary. Africans were skilled farmers; they had some immunity to both tropical and European diseases; they weren't Christians; they were close at hand; and they were readily available in substantial numbers through African-operated commercial networks. (Original: p. 451; With Sources: p. 691)	15
8849795326	17. What role did the Europeans play in the unfolding of the Atlantic slave trade?	Europeans demanded slaves for trade. The entire enterprise was in the Europeans hands, from the point of sale on the African coast to the American plantations. Europeans tried to exploit rivalries to obtain slaves at the lowest possible cost, and guns they exchanged for the slaves may well have increased the warfare from which so many slaves were derived. (Original: p. 452; With Sources: p. 692)	16
8849795327	18. What role did the Africans play in the unfolding of the Atlantic slave trade?	From the point of initial capture to sale on the coast, the slave trade was normally in African hands. African merchants and elites secured slaves and brought them to the coast for sale to Europeans waiting on ships or in fortified settlements. Africans who were transported as slaves also played and unwilling and tragic role in the trade. (Original: p. 452; With Sources: p. 693)	17
8849795328	19. What regions in the Americas had the largest destination of slaves in the 18th century?	The Caribbean and Brazil (Original: p. 454; With Sources: p. 694)	18
8849795329	20. In what different ways did the Atlantic slave trade transform African societies?	The Atlantic slave trade slowed Africa's population growth at a time when the populations of Europe, China, and other regions were expanding. The slave trade stimulated little positive economic change in Africa and led to economic stagnation. It led to political disruption, particularly for small-scale societies with little central authority. Some larger kingdoms, such as Kongo and Oyo, also slowly disintegrated because of the slave trade. However, in Benin and Dahomey, those African authorities sought to take advantage of the new commercial opportunities to manage the slave trade in their own interests. (Original: p. 455-456; With Sources: pp. 695-696)	19
8849795330	Ferdinand Magellan	Portuguese mariner who commanded the first European (Spanish) fleet to circumnavigate the globe (1519-1521) (Original: p. 438; With Sources: p. 678)	20
8849795331	British / Dutch East India Companies	Private trading companies chartered by the governments of England and the Netherlands around 1600; they were given monopolies on Indian Ocean trade, including the right to make war and to rule conquered peoples. (Original: p. 439; With Sources: p. 679)	21
8849795332	Daimyo	Feudal lords of Japan who ruled with virtual independence thanks to their bands of samurai warriors (Original: p. 441; With Sources: p. 681)	22
8849795333	Samurai	the warrior elite of medieval Japan (Original: p. 441; With Sources: p. 681)	23
8849795334	Shogun	a supreme military commander in Japan (Original: p. 441; With Sources: p. 681)	24
8849795335	Tokagawa Shogunate	Military rulers of Japan who successfully unified Japan politically by the early 17th century and established a "closed door" policy toward European encroachment (Original: p. 441; With Sources: p. 681)	25
8849795336	Manila	Capital of the Spanish Philippines and a major multicultural trade city that already had a population of more than 40,000 by 1600. (Original: p. 442; With Sources: p. 682)	26
8849795337	Potosi	a city that developed in present day Bolivia and was the site of the world's largest silver mine. (Original: p. 443; With Sources: p. 683)	27
8849795338	African diaspora	the spread of African peoples across the Atlantic via the slave trade (Original: p. 449-450; With Sources: p. 690)	28
8849795339	Middle Passage	the name given to the journey across the Atlantic undertaken by African slaves being shipped from Africa to the Americas (Original: p. 449-451; With Sources: pp. 689-691)	29