AP Gov Flashcards
Terms : Hide Images
| 7060999480 | Conservative | Status Quo, less Gov. | 0 | |
| 7060999481 | Moderate | Mid-Ground | 1 | |
| 7060999482 | Liberal | Peaceful gradual change, reject violent revolution | 2 | |
| 7060999483 | Radical | Far Left, Resorts to extreme methods to bring about change. | 3 | |
| 7060999484 | Political Spectrum | Tool used to visually compare different political positions by placing them on one or more axis. |  | 4 |
| 7060999485 | Right | Less Gov intervention, Traditional Values | 5 | |
| 7060999486 | Left | More Gov Intervention, support change | 6 | |
| 7060999487 | Parliamentary Government | Executive are members of the legislative branch | 7 | |
| 7060999488 | Presidential Governemt | Separates Power between executive/legislative | 8 | |
| 7060999489 | Reactionary | Far right, Extreme methods | 9 | |
| 7060999490 | Representative Democracy | People represented through elected officials. | 10 | |
| 7060999491 | The State | Body of people living in a defined territory, having power to make and enforce law without the consent of any higher authority. | 11 | |
| 7060999492 | Monarchy | Power in the hands of royalty | 12 | |
| 7060999493 | Dictatorship | Ruled by a single leader not elected. | 13 | |
| 7060999494 | Military Dictatorship | Army is in control | 14 | |
| 7060999495 | Theocracy | Religious based Government | 15 | |
| 7060999496 | Public Policies | All things a government decides to do. | 16 | |
| 7060999497 | Conferred Power | Power which is agreed upon. | 17 | |
| 7060999498 | Four aspects of the State | 1. Population: must have people 2. Territory: recognized boundaries 3. Sovereignty: Having supreme and absolute authority in it's own territory 4. Government- Different forms | 18 | |
| 7060999499 | Evolutionary theory | Developed out of early familiy | 19 | |
| 7060999500 | Divine Right Theory | State created by God and those of royal birth have a divine right to rule. | 20 | |
| 7060999501 | Force Theory | A group claimed control and forced all other to submit. | 21 | |
| 7060999502 | Social or Political Contract theory | Peoples moral and/or political obligations are dependent on an agreement among them to form the society in which they live. *Law and political order are not natural, they are human creations. | 22 | |
| 7060999503 | Confederate | An alliance of independent states | 23 | |
| 7060999504 | Federal | Power is divided between a central gov't and several local gov't. | 24 | |
| 7060999505 | State of Nature | Survival of the Fittest | 25 | |
| 7060999506 | Unitary | All power belongs to one level of gov't | 26 | |
| 7060999507 | Government | An organization of people set up to protect the community and make rules. -Protects community -Makes laws -Keeps order | 27 | |
| 7060999508 | Politics | Activities relate to governance of a country or area | 28 | |
| 7060999509 | Democracy | Gov elected by the people. Determine either directly or through elected Reps. | 29 | |
| 7060999510 | Direct Democracy | People vote Directly on every issue | 30 | |
| 7060999511 | Democrats | Generally liberal because they support gov reg. of the economy. | 31 | |
| 7060999512 | Republicans | Generally Conservatives because they advocate a reduction in gov. | 32 | |
| 7060999513 | Current issues (Left) | Left: Pro Gun control, Pro Choice, No Censorship, Prisons should Rehabilitate, Pro-privacy, Equal funding for Education. | 33 | |
| 7060999514 | Current issues (Right) | Right: Anti-gun Control, Pro-life, Anti Flag burning, Prisons should punish, Prayer in schools, School vouchers. | 34 | |
| 7060999515 | Taxation (Left) | Acceptable, Gov have $ to fund programs benefiting society, % taxes preferred over flat rate, rich= more tax | 35 | |
| 7060999516 | Taxation (Right) | Taxes infringe on personal freedoms Taxes= bad for free market Taxes= Penalization those who are successful Taxes= Punish Profit Prefers flat tax | 36 | |
| 7060999517 | Business Regulation (Left) | Yes on gov. Reg Market no reliable to provide safe work conditions Gov. reg= protect workers+ consumers= Everyone= chance to succeed | 37 | |
| 7060999518 | Business Regulations (Right) | Business need free from gov. and supply and demand will guide Gov policies that affect products are bad Trickle down economics is the way to stimulate economy | 38 | |
| 7060999519 | Political Rights (Left) | Extend Civil Rights to minority groups, students, prisoners, homosexuals, and poor. Protect individual rights: Free speech, pro-choice, anti-capital punishment, and privacy. | 39 | |
| 7060999520 | Political Rights (Right) | Cent gov= diminish Issues dealt best on state and local level No change in family values ( usually christian centered) O.K to censor obscure ideas that shake Status Quo. | 40 | |
| 7060999521 | Distribution of wealth (Left) | Disparity between rich and poor no good, taxes= distribute wealth. Gov more involved in ed, Health care, Child C., and Elderly. Pub Project= Stimulate economy | 41 | |
| 7060999522 | Distribution of wealth (Right) | Business= right to make profit People are rich or poor b/c of choices they make Prosperous people should no be penalized. | 42 | |
| 7060999523 | Economy (Left) | Minimum wage standards Public projects= more jobs Gov provide basic living standards of living to all citizens | 43 | |
| 7060999524 | Economy (Right) | Economy works best in free market (Laissez- Faire) Forces of the market= trusted to meet needs of business, consumer, and workers. Gov. programs should not compete with private industry. | 44 | |
| 7060999525 | Foreign Affairs (Left) | Spread Democracy + Protect human rights in the world Strong Support of UN. | 45 | |
| 7060999526 | Foreign Affairs (Right) | Gov role= pro us business and econ. intervention in other countries. Fix us before we fix others Support tariffs (tax on imports) | 46 | |
| 7060999527 | SCOPE OF THE GOVERNMENT (Left) | The government should serve as the equalizers in society and establish a basic standard of living, a minimum wage is an acceptable tool of government intervention. The left accepts government control and regulation of business and an active government that protects political rights. | 47 | |
| 7060999528 | SCOPE OF THE GOVERNMENT (Right) | Government should be downsized. Large governments, both federal and state, have the power to control business interests and therefore potentially infringe on the freedoms of individuals. Government programs tend to provide unnecessary services that go beyond the scope of the constitution. | 48 | |
| 7060999529 | Two- Party System | A system where two major political parties dominate politics within a government | 49 | |
| 7060999530 | Third party | Any political party that is not one of the two major parties in a two-party system | 50 | |
| 7060999531 | Plank | Each issue included in a political party's platform. Gives the candidates a clear political position with which they can campaign. They give voters a sense of what the candidates believe in, the issues they think are important, and how - if elected - they will address them. | 51 | |
| 7060999532 | Becoming President | Step 1: Formation of a Presidential Exploratory Committee Step 2: Announcement of intention to run for president based on findings of the exploratory committee Step 3: Fundraising and gathering of support and endorsements from the general public as well as other politicians, special interest groups, corporations, etc. Step 4: Campaigning early, especially in states where primaries are important (Iowa, New Hampshire, candidates home state, etc.) Step 5: Continuing to campaign to beat out all other opponents from within your own party Step 6: Attending your party's National Convention and securing the nomination of the party Step 7: Campaigning nationwide against your opponents from other parties Step 8: Winning election and securing enough electoral college votes to be named the next president | 52 | |
| 7060999533 | Three main concepts of Government brought by English Colonists | The need for an ordered social system, or government. The idea of limited government, that is, that government should not be all-powerful. The concept of representative government—a government that serves the will of the people. | 53 | |
| 7060999534 | Royal Colonies | Ruled directly by the English monarchy. | 54 | |
| 7060999535 | Proprietary colonies. | Land given to the colonist by the Monarchy | 55 | |
| 7060999536 | Charter Colonists | Self-governed, and their charters were granted to the colonists. | 56 | |
| 7060999537 | Confederation | A joining of several groups for a common purpose | 57 | |
| 7060999538 | The Albany Plan | In 1754, Benjamin Franklin proposed the Albany Plan, an annual congress of delegates (representatives) from each of the 13 colonies would be formed. | 58 | |
| 7060999539 | Stamp Act Congress | In 1765, a group of colonies sent delegates to the Stamp Act Congress in New York. These delegates prepared the Declaration of Rights and Grievances against British policies and sent it to the king. | 59 | |
| 7060999540 | First Continental Congress | The colonists sent a Declaration of Rights to King George III. The delegates urged each of the colonies to refuse all trade with England until British tax and trade regulations were repealed, or recalled. | 60 | |
| 7060999541 | Second Continental Congress | In 1775, each of the 13 colonies sent representatives to this gathering in Philadelphia. The Second Continental Congress served as the first government of the United States from 1776 to 1781. | 61 | |
| 7060999542 | Declaration of Independence | July 4, 1776, the Second Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence. Between 1776 and 1777, most of the States adopted constitutions instead of charters. | 62 | |
| 7060999543 | Common Features of State Constitutions | Popular Sovereignty Limited Government Civil Rights and Liberties Separation of Powers and Checks and Balances | 63 | |
| 7060999544 | Popular Sovereignty | The principle of popular sovereignty was the basis for every new State constitution. That principle says that government can exist and function only with the consent of the governed. The people hold power and the people are sovereign. | 64 | |
| 7060999545 | Limited Government | The concept of limited government was a major feature of each State constitution. The powers delegated to government were granted reluctantly and hedged with many restrictions. | 65 | |
| 7060999546 | Civil Rights and Liberties | In every State it was made clear that the sovereign people held certain rights that the government must respect at all times. Seven of the new constitutions contained a bill of rights, setting out the "unalienable rights" held by the people. | 66 | |
| 7060999547 | Separation of Powers and Checks and Balances | The powers granted to the new State governments were purposely divided among three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial. Each branch was given powers with which to check (restrain the actions of) the other branches of the government. | 67 | |
| 7060999548 | Articles of Confederation (AC) | Approved November 15, 1777 Est. "a firm league of friendship" between the states Needed the ratification of the 13 states March 1, 1781 Second Continental Congress declared the Articles effective | 68 | |
| 7060999549 | Structure of Constitution | 3 parts; the preamble, the articles(7), and the amendments | 69 | |
| 7060999550 | The Preamble | intro, explains purpose of Constitution and purpose of govt | 70 | |
| 7060999551 | Article I | establishes legislative branch | 71 | |
| 7060999552 | Article II | creates an executive branch to carry out laws created by Congress | 72 | |
| 7060999553 | Article III | creates judicial branch | 73 | |
| 7060999554 | Article IV | explains the relationship of the states to one another and to the national govt | 74 | |
| 7060999555 | Article V | spells out the ways the Constitution can be amended | 75 | |
| 7060999556 | Article VI | contains the supremacy clause, establishing that federal law shall be the supreme law of the land | 76 | |
| 7060999557 | Article VII | addresses ratification and says that 9 states are needed to ratify the Constitution | 77 | |
| 7060999558 | Connecticut Compromise | Two houses Senate - equal representation House - proportional representation based on population Combination of Virginia and New Jersey plans | 78 | |
| 7060999559 | 6 Major Principles of Constitution | 1. Popular sovereignty- rule by people 2. Federalism- power is divided between national and state govts 3. Separation of powers- limits the central govt by dividing power among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches 4. checks and balances- each branch of govt exercises some control over the others | 79 | |
| 7060999560 | Electoral College | a compromise, combining features of both congressional selection and direct popular election | 80 | |
| 7060999561 | Electors | individuals selected in each state to officially cast that state's electoral votes; Wisconsin selects 10 electors | 81 | |
| 7060999562 | Popular Vote | the popular vote winner may not win the electoral college; for example: small-state bias caused by each state getting at least three electoral votes regardless of its size | 82 | |
| 7060999563 | The Virginia Plan | -Three Separate branches of government: Legislature, Executive, and Judicial -Bicameral legislature (2 parts) -Based on population or the amount of money given to support the central government -Members of House of Reps = based on population -Senate = chosen by House from a list from the State Legislature -Congress would be given powers it had under the Articles of Confederation -Any State law that conflicted with National Law would be vetoed -"National Executive" and "National Judiciary" -Council of Revision -Veto acts passed by Congress (but can be overridden by Congress) -State officers should take an Oath to the Union -Admission process for new States | 83 | |
| 7060999564 | New Jersey Plan | -Unicameral (one body) Congress of the Confederation -Each state equally represented -Give them limited and closely monitored powers -Tax and regulate trade -Federal Executive -More than one person -Chosen by Congress/could be removed with a majority vote -Federal Judiciary -Single "supreme Tribunal" -Selected by the Executive Branch | 84 | |
| 7060999565 | Three-Fifths Compromise | All "free persons" will be counted; 3/5 of all other persons Southerners could count slaves but had to pay taxes on them | 85 | |
| 7060999566 | judicial review | power of courts to say that laws and actions of govt are invalid bc they conflict w the constitution's principles | 86 | |
| 7060999567 | The Commerce and Slave Trade Compromises | Congress has the power to regulate foreign and interstate trade -Scared southerners because of slave trade -States cannot enact import/export taxes only federal government can -Could not act on the slave trade for 20 years | 87 | |
| 7060999568 | AC (Power of congress) | Make war and peace Send and receive ambassadors Make treaties Borrow money Set up a money system Est. post offices Build a navy Raise an army by asking the states for troops Fix uniform standards of weights and measures Settle disputes among the states | 88 | |
| 7060999569 | James Madison | James Madison was the co-author of the Articles of Confederation. Kept detailed records of the convention Conventions Floor leader Contributed more to the constitution than any other | 89 | |
| 7060999570 | Constitutional Convention | Mid-February of 1787 meeting of all thirteen States, which eventually became the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia. | 90 | |
| 7060999571 | AC (States Obligations) | Pledge to obey the Articles and Acts of the Congress Provide the funds and troops requested by the congress Treat citizens of other states fairly and equally Give full faith and credit to public acts, records, and judicial proceedings Submit disputes to congress for settlement Allow open travel and trade b/w and among states Primarily responsible for protecting life and property Accountable for promoting the general welfare of the people. | 91 | |
| 7060999572 | Weaknesses of the Articles | -One vote for each state, regardless of size. -Congress powerless to lay and collect taxes, and regulate foreign and interstate commerce. -No executive to enforce acts of congress. -No national court system. Amendment only with consent of all states. -Amendment only with consent of all State. -A 9/13 majority required to pass laws. -Articles only a "firm league of friendship" | 92 | |
| 7060999573 | Lobbying | efforts by individuals or groups to influence governmental decision makers Types of lobbying; -full-time employee -temporary employee -often former legislatives | 93 | |
| 7060999574 | Inside lobbying | appeals directly to lawmakers and their staff -through meetings -by providing research and info -by testifying at committee hearings | 94 | |
| 7060999575 | Outside lobbying | attempt to influence decision makers indirectly, by influencing the public -try to build public support -increase conflict about an issue -lobby other groups and try to form alliances tactics: direct contact, direct mail, and media advertisements | 95 | |
| 7060999576 | Electioneering | -efforts to help candidates financially -efforts to help candidates gain voter support | 96 | |
| 7060999577 | Litigation | testifying to influence public policy | 97 | |
| 7060999578 | Types of Interest Groups | -economic interests -environmental interests -equality interests -consumer and other public interest lobbies | 98 | |
| 7060999579 | Economic Interests | trade associations; - organized commercial groups, farm organizations - corporations; form own interest groups, hire lobbyists - labor unions, professional associations | 99 | |
| 7060999580 | Environmental Interests | - sprang up since 1970 - profound policy impact bc of numbers, not money | 100 | |
| 7060999581 | PAC | Political Action Committees; raise and spend money to influence electoral outcomes | 101 | |
| 7060999582 | Equality Interests | 14th Amendment guarantees equality Minorities and Equality - social welfare policies Women | 102 | |
| 7060999583 | Consumer and Other Public Interest Lobbies | Represent broad classes of people or the public as a whole -consumer, voters, reformers, etc Public Interest Groups -policies that are in the public's interest Think tanks -conduct research -advocate a strong ideological viewpoint | 103 | |
| 7060999584 | How do interest groups shape public policy? | lobbying, electioneering, litigation, going public | 104 | |
| 7060999585 | Law making process | http://integrationsolutions.westlaw.com/gov/leghist/images/cap.gif | 105 | |
| 7060999586 | Presidential Roles | Chief of State - the ceremonial head of the government of the United States Chief Executive - given this title by the Constitution Chief Administrator - carry out the laws, head of the federal bureaucracy Chief Diplomat - main architect of America's foreign policy Commander in Chief - head of the nation's armed forces Chief Legislator - can push for laws to be passed Chief of Party - Leader of their political party | 106 | |
| 7060999587 | Presidential Qualifications | Must be a natural born citizen Be at least 35 years old Have lived in the U.S. for at least 14 years | 107 | |
| 7060999588 | Who takes over if pres. cannot | Vice President Speaker of the House President pro tempore Secretary of State | 108 | |
| 7060999589 | 22nd Amendment | set 2 term limit on | 109 | |
| 7060999590 | Presidential pay | $400,000 a year and $50,000 expense account | 110 | |
| 7060999591 | Presidential Benefits | Live in the White House (132 Rooms) Yacht, Automobiles, Air Force One Lifetime pension of $143,800 a year Camp David - Resort in Maryland | 111 | |
| 7060999592 | Presidential power | Power to appoint cabinet members, diplomats and ambassadors, judges Power to make treaties - formal agreement between two or more sovereign state Executive Agreement - pacts between the President and the heads of foreign states Recognition - President can acknowledge the legal existence of a country and its government | 112 | |
| 7060999593 | Presidential Legislative power | Recommend Legislation Veto Bills Can call for a special session of Congress | 113 | |
| 7060999594 | Presidential Judicial power | Reprieve - postponement of the execution of a sentence Pardon - legal forgiveness of a crime (only involving a federal offense) Commutation - reduce the length of a sentence or a fine Amnesty - a general pardon offered to a group of violators 1977 - Pardon to Vietnam War draft evaders | 114 | |
| 7060999595 | Main jobs of House and Senate | Make Laws Declare War Represent their Constituents | 115 | |
| 7060999596 | House Membership | 435 members (each state's delegation is determined by its population) | 116 | |
| 7060999597 | Senate Membership | 100 members (two per state) | 117 | |
| 7060999598 | House Qualifications | 25 years old U.S Citizens for 7 years Resident of State they're representing | 118 | |
| 7060999599 | Senate Qualifications | 30 years old U.S citizens for 9 years Resident of State they're representing | 119 | |
| 7060999600 | Terms limit for House | 2 years entire house elected every two years | 120 | |
| 7060999601 | Terms limit for Senate | 1/3 of Senate 2 years | 121 | |
| 7060999602 | "Leader" of House | Speaker of the House | 122 | |
| 7060999603 | "Leader" of Senate | Vice President | 123 | |
| 7060999604 | How House is elected | Directly voted by voter per district | 124 | |
| 7060999605 | How Senate is elected | Directly by the voters of a state | 125 | |
| 7060999606 | Reapportionment | Applies only to HOUSE redistribution of seats every 10 years states gain or lose seats based on their population growing or shrinking | 126 | |
| 7060999607 | Thomas Paine | Author of book "Common Sense" | 127 | |
| 7060999608 | Gerrymandering | an attempt by politicians to create unbalanced districts for their party's political gain | 128 | |
| 7060999609 | Special Powers of House | Brings impeachment charges May choose the President if there is no majority in the electoral system Must start all revenue bills | 129 | |
| 7060999610 | Special Powers of Senate | Acts as jury in impeachment trials (2/3 vote needed) May choose the Vice President if there is no majority in the electoral system Must ratify treaties with foreign nations by 2/3 vote Must approves Presidential appointments (majority needed) | 130 | |
| 7060999611 | What makes an interest group successful? | access, info, leadership skills, numerical strength, group unity, money | 131 | |
| 7060999612 | CBO | - strengthen Congress' role in the budgeting process | 132 | |
| 7060999613 | Pluralist Theory | - groups link ppl and govt - competition between interest groups is a central part of American democracy - different groups have strengths in different areas | 133 | |
| 7060999614 | Types of Committees | Standing committees - handle bills in different policy areas Select - may be temporary and permanent and usually have focused responsibility Joint Committees - draw their membership from both the Senate and the House Conference Committees - are formed when Senate and the house pass different versions of the same bill | 134 | |
| 7060999615 | Elite Theory | - reject the pluralists' assertion that competing groups balance power - believe unequal distribution of power in society ensures that interests of some groups will dominate others | 135 | |
| 7060999616 | Hyperpluralist Theory | - argue that pluralism in the US is out of control -results in govt that is very subservient to interest groups and tries to appease them all | 136 | |
| 7060999617 | 4 Models of Representations | delegate model - assumes that a representative's job is to convey the will of the majority of their constituents to the legislature trustee model - should take the majority view into account but use his or best judgment when voting or acting on behalf of constituents politico model -middle path between trustees and delegate model conscience model - should generally follow what the follow what the public says unless it goes against their deepest values | 137 | |
| 7060999618 | Agenda setting | bringing issues to the public's attention and placing them on the national agenda | 138 | |
| 7060999619 | GAO | Government Accountability Office - broad authority to oversee the operations and finances of executive agencies | 139 | |
| 7060999620 | GPOthec | Government Printing Office - distributes over 200,000 govt publications in U.S. govt bookstores throughout the nation | 140 | |
| 7060999621 | Types of gerrymandering | Partisan gerrymandering - drawing a district to favor one political party over others Incumbent gerrymandering - a state legislature is so closely divided that neither political party has an advantage Racial gerrymandering - drawing a district to favor one racial group over others Affirmative racial gerrymandering - creation of predominately African American and minority districts whenever possible | 141 | |
| 7060999622 | Free rider problem | barrier to collective action bc ppl can reap the benefits of group efforts without participating | 142 | |
| 7060999623 | Single-issue groups | groups that have a narrow interest, tend to dislike compromise, and often draw membership from people new to politics | 143 | |
| 7060999624 | CRS | Congressional Research Service - works for the U.S. Congress and provides nonpartisan an policy and research analysis to committees and members of both houses | 144 | |
| 7060999625 | Edmund Burke | contrasts with the idea of representatives as delegated who feel obligated to vote according to the views of the "folks back home" regardless of their own personal viewpoint | 145 | |
| 7060999626 | Caucus | a group of members of Congress sharing some interest or characteristic | 146 | |
| 7060999627 | House Rules Committee | the committee in the House of Representatives that reviews most bills coming from a House committee before they go to the full House | 147 | |
| 7060999628 | Companion legislation | similar or identical legislation which is introduced in Senate and House | 148 | |
| 7060999629 | Omnibus legislation | large bills that often cover several topics and may contain extraneous, or pork-barrel projects | 149 | |
| 7060999630 | Who runs for congress? | People involved: Law Business Public service | 150 | |
| 7060999631 | legislative oversight | congress' monitoring of the bureaucracy and its administration of policy, performed mainly through hearings | 151 | |
| 7060999632 | power of the purse | congressional exclusive power to authorize expenditures by all avenues of the federal govt | 152 | |
| 7060999633 | advice and consent | advice and consent and confirmation of presidential appointments and treaties | 153 | |
| 7060999634 | Seniority system | governs most committee assignments and movement into committee leadership positions | 154 | |
| 7060999635 | Pork barrel | federal projects, grants, and contracts available to state and local govts, businesses, colleges, and other institutions | 155 | |
| 7060999636 | congressional casework | activities of members of Congress that help constituents as individuals, particularly by cutting through bureaucratic red tape to get ppl what they think they have a right to get | 156 | |
| 7060999637 | partisan polarization | a vote in which a majority of democratic legislators oppose a majority of republican legislators | 157 | |
| 7060999638 | incumbent advantages | advertising - gather info through technological sources-thus having the incumbents' personal interests credit claiming - enhancing their standing w constituents through service to individuals and the district weak opponents -no name recognition campaign spending - the candidate who spends the most money tends to win misinformed voters | 158 | |
| 7060999639 | federalist | a person who advocates or supports a system of government in which several states unite under a central authority | 159 | |
| 7060999640 | anti-federalist | somebody who opposed the U.S. Constitution when it was being drawn up | 160 | |
| 7060999641 | filibuster | any member can speak for as long as he or she wants on any given use | 161 | |
| 7060999642 | Amendment 1 freedoms | Freedom of Religion, freedom of speech, Freedom of expression, Freedom of the Press, and Freedom of Assembly. | 162 | |
| 7060999643 | bill of rights | the first ten amendments to the US Constitution | 163 |
Flashcards
Flashcards
AP Chemistry Review Cards Flashcards
I took the flash cards from this weeks materials and put them into this set.
Terms : Hide Images
| 13857453058 | Diatomic Elements and bonding | H2 - single covalent bond F2, Cl2, Br2, I2 - single covalent bond O2 - double covalent bond N2 - triple covalent bond | 0 | |
| 13857453059 | The 6 strong acids that 100% ionize | HCl -> H(+) + Cl(-) HBr -> H(+) + Br(-) HI -> H(+) + I(-) HClO4 -> H(+) + ClO4(-) HNO3 -> H(+) + NO3(-) HSO4 -> H(+) + SO4(-) | 1 | |
| 13857453060 | The strong bases | All soluble metal hydroxides | 2 | |
| 13857453061 | Celsius to Kelvin conversion | 273 + C = K | 3 | |
| 13857453062 | Percent Error | [(Experimental - Correct)/Correct]*100% | 4 | |
| 13857453063 | # of SD that will be considered correct for 99% of all AP Exam Questiosn | 3/three | 5 | |
| 13857453064 | Only situation where you can use exact number of SDs | Lab measurements involving subtraction and addition | 6 | |
| 13857453065 | Latitude in Sig Figs | Greater # of SDs, the greater the accuracy Most accurate lab devices: graduate cylinder, blance, volumetric flask, burette, pipette Least accurate lab device: beaker, Erlenmeyer flask | 7 | |
| 13857453066 | Molecular Mass of molecules | H2 = 2.0 g/mol N2 = 28 g/mol O2 = 32 g/mol H2O = 18 g/mol CO2 = 44 g/mol NaOH = 40.0 g/mol | 8 | |
| 13857453067 | Atomic Number | the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom also the number of electrons in a neutral atom | 9 | |
| 13857453068 | Mass Number | the sum of the number of neutrons and protons in an atomic nucleus | 10 | |
| 13857453069 | Average Atomic Mass | average mass in amu or g/mol of the atoms in an element | 11 | |
| 13857453070 | Mass spectrometer | sorts isotopes of elements by mass and shows the relative abundance of each isotope | 12 | |
| 13857453071 | Similarities between isotopes of an element | All isotopes of an element have same number of protons | 13 | |
| 13857453072 | Differences between isotopes of an element | Density Atomic Mass Number of Neutrons | 14 | |
| 13857453073 | How are specific isotopes of an element written | name-mass number uranium-235 | 15 | |
| 13857453074 | Coulombic forces | Attractions between opposite charges and repulsions of similar charges | 16 | |
| 13857453075 | Avogadro's number | 6.02 x 10^23 | 17 | |
| 13857453076 | Units for molar mass and mol-mass conversion | molar mass: g/mol g of substance * 1mol/g molar mass = mol substance mol of substance * g molar mass/1mol = g mass of substance | 18 | |
| 13857453077 | How to find a limiting reactant | Set up an ICE chart Divide the mol amounts of reactants by the coefficients of the reactants the smaller molar amount will be the limiting reacting. | 19 | |
| 13857453078 | Empirical Formula | mol ratio of the elements in a compound reduced to the lowest whole numbers Find the mol of each element Divide each mol amount by the lowest mol amount | 20 | |
| 13857453079 | Mole Fraction | molA/total mol mixture = mole fraction Add up all the moles to get the denominator | 21 | |
| 13857453080 | Cations which are soluble | Na+, K+, NH4+ and other group 1 ions | 22 | |
| 13857453081 | anions which are soluble | NO3-, ClO4-, and SO4 (2-) | 23 | |
| 13857453082 | molarity units | mole/L | 24 | |
| 13857453083 | Molarity x Volume (L) | Moles of solute | 25 | |
| 13857453084 | Molarity x Volume (mL) | Millimoles of solute | 26 | |
| 13857453085 | Millimole of solute/volume (mL) | Molarity in M | 27 | |
| 13857453086 | Molecular, ionic, and net ionic reaction for the formation of a precipitate of sodium chloride reacting with silver nitrate to form a precipitate | Molecular: NaCl + AgNO3 -> NaNO3 + AgCl Ionic: Na+ + Cl- + Ag+ +NO3- -> Na+ +NO3- +AgCl Net Ionic: Ag+ + Cl- -> AgCl Note: All sodium, potassium, ammonium, and nitrate compounds are soluble and will not be found in NIE's. Weak acids and bases are shows as molecules in net ionic equations. | 28 | |
| 13857453087 | Solubility rule: | All sodium, potassium, ammonium, and nitrate compounds are soluble and will not be found in NIE's. | 29 | |
| 13857453088 | torr or mmHg to atm | 760 mm Hg = 1 atm | 30 | |
| 13857453089 | STP for gases | 1 atm, 760 mmHg, 0 C, 273 K | 31 | |
| 13857453090 | Density of gas | molar mass = (Density x R x T)/Pressure | 32 | |
| 13857453091 | Density of a gas @STP | Density g/L = molar mass/22.4 L/mol | 33 | |
| 13857453092 | Molecular speed of gases and molecular mass and Maxwell Boltzmann curve | At a given temperature, lighter means faster Hydrogen is always the fastest. On Maxwell-Boltzmann curves, the average speed is slightly to the right of the peak of its curve. The faster the speed, the more spread out it will be. | 34 | |
| 13857453093 | Non-ideal T and P conditions | Higher pressure, lower temperature | 35 | |
| 13857453094 | Causes of deviations from Ideal-gas | Higher than expected pressures (large molecular volume), lower than expected pressure (condense). | 36 | |
| 13857453095 | Partial pressures of gases in a mixture | Pa = Pt x mole fraction | 37 | |
| 13857453096 | Specific heat | Water = 4.18 J/gC metals = low specific heats (less than 1). | 38 | |
| 13857453097 | Energy from experimental reaction in calorimeter | Calorimetry is used to find the enthalpy of a reaction: qcalorimeter = mcdeltaT | 39 | |
| 13857453098 | What is deltaH? | Change in enthalpy of a reaction | 40 | |
| 13857453099 | deltaH units | kJ/mol | 41 | |
| 13857453100 | deltaH = + | Endothermic - thermodynamically unfavorable and will only happen if there is an increase in S | 42 | |
| 13857453101 | deltaH = - | Exothermic - thermodynamically favorable. | 43 | |
| 13857453102 | deltaH where heat (KE) is a product | Exothermic and deltaH is negative | 44 | |
| 13857453103 | deltaH where heat (KE) is a reactant | Endothermic and deltaH is positive | 45 | |
| 13857453104 | enthalpy of formation | Reaction enthalpy to make 1 mole of substance is made from its elements in the most common form. | 46 | |
| 13857453105 | enthalpy of formation for elements | 0 kJ/mol by definition | 47 | |
| 13857453106 | enthalpy of formation of elements exceptions | May not be zero if it is not in its most common form at 25 C | 48 | |
| 13857453107 | Enthalpy of reaction from enthalpy of formation | enthalpy of reaction = deltaHf - deltaHf rxn | 49 | |
| 13857453108 | Photons and wavelengths and energy | E=hv c=lambda(v) Shorter wavelengths have higher frequencies and greater photon energies | 50 | |
| 13857453109 | Unit for frequency | Hertz (Hz) 1/s | 51 | |
| 13857453110 | nm and m relationship caution in calculations | nm = 1e-9 meter speed of light is given in meters Speed of light is given in m, must convert from nm to m. | 52 | |
| 13857453111 | Nanometer wavelengths UV X-ray Visible light IR | Xrays < 10 nm UV 10 nm - 400 nm Visible 400nm (violet) - 700 nm (red) IR 700 nm - 1 mm | 53 | |
| 13857453112 | Generalization of how the different photon energies affect substances | XRays ionize atoms Ultraviolet and visible excite electrons to different energy levels Infrared and microwave cause molecular vibrations and rotations. | 54 | |
| 13857453113 | Electron order of orbital filling | 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6 5s2 You won't have to write configurations beyond 5s2 This works with the periodic table. | 55 | |
| 13857453114 | Abbreviated electron configuration | Symbol of noble gas preceding element is placed in brackets. | 56 | |
| 13857453115 | Hund's rule | Electrons will half fill orbitals in a subshell before doubling up | 57 | |
| 13857453116 | Pauli Exclusion Principle | Paired electrons must have opposite spin within an orbital. | 58 | |
| 13857453117 | Quantum numbers | Quantum numbers are used to provide a more detailed description of electrons in an atom. | 59 | |
| 13857453118 | Atomic radius decreases as atomic number increases from left to right because | Nuclear charge attraction to electrons, Z, is produced by protons in the nucleus attracting outer electrons. Coulombic attractions | 60 | |
| 13857453119 | Reason why atomic radius increases as period increases down families | Electrons in higher numbered periods are in successively higher energy levels placing the valence electrons farther from the attractions of the protons in the nucleus. | 61 | |
| 13857453120 | Summary of periodic table trends for atomic radii | Smallest in the upper right-hand corner Largest in the lower left hand corner | 62 | |
| 13857453121 | Knowing the trends vs explaining the trends | Explaining requires knowing the cause of the trends Referencing a periodic trend does not constitute an explanation of atomic property differences Zeff, number of shells, distance of principle energy levels from the nucleus can be valid explanations. | 63 | |
| 13857453122 | PES graphs | PES is an experimental method for determining the binding energies and electronic structure of an atom The data is produced by kicking electrons out of atoms using high energy photons. AP Question PES graphs will always have the highest binding energies of interior electrons to the left with lower binding energies to the right in a logarithmic scale. PES graphs will group the subshells in their respective energy levels. The number of electrons in the subshell determines the height of each subshell peak. Electron configurations mirror PES graphs | 64 | |
| 13857453123 | PES graph shifts with increasing atomic size | As the number of protons increases the peaks shift left indicating the greater binding energy of the protons to the electrons. | 65 | |
| 13857453124 | # of Valence electrons in atoms | Electrons in the highest energy level These are determined using the columns in the periodic table. | 66 | |
| 13857453125 | How non-transition metals ionize | Oxidation, losing electrons to form a cation Electron loss is down to the p6 of the lower energy level | 67 | |
| 13857453126 | How transition metals ionize | Oxidation, losing electrons to form a cation Electron loss is from the higher energy s orbital | 68 | |
| 13857453127 | How nonmetals ionize | Reduction, gain electrons to p6 | 69 | |
| 13857453128 | Three elements when bonded with hydrogen can form hydrogen bonding? | Fluorine, Oxygen, and Nitrogen | 70 | |
| 13857453129 | Ionization energy | Energy needed to remove an electron from a single atom of an element in its gaseous form Always endothermic, deltaH = + | 71 | |
| 13857453130 | Electron affinity energy | Attraction of electron to neutral atom Usually exothermic, deltaH = - | 72 | |
| 13857453131 | Factors used to explain increasing ionization energy | Smaller atomic size Greater number of protons in nucleus | 73 | |
| 13857453132 | Factors used to explain decreasing ionization energy | smaller atoms nonmetals upper right of the periodic table | 74 | |
| 13857453133 | Dramatic increases in ionization energy indicate the limit of the + charge of the ion | Atom with ionization energy sequence 1st 1801 kJ to become X+ 2nd 2430 kJ to become X2+ 3rd 3660 kJ to become X3+ 4th 25000 kJ (dramatic increase in IE prevents further ionization) | 75 | |
| 13857453134 | How is an ionic compound formed? | An ionic bond is formed between a metal that loses electrons and a nonmetal which gains those electrons. | 76 | |
| 13857453135 | What is the lattice energy? | Kinetic energy released when the ions come together to form a crystal lattice | 77 | |
| 13857453136 | What is the difference between ionic bonds and covalent bonds? | In an ionic compound the difference in electronegativity is so great that the particles can be considered ions In a covalent compound the atoms 'share' the electrons rather than taking it away from each other. | 78 | |
| 13857453137 | Covalent Bond formation PE graph | Two atoms combine to form a bond Bond formation is always exothermic Bond energy is at the bottom of the PE well | 79 | |
| 13857453138 | Bond energy value | Bond energy is always a positive number because it is defined as the kinetic energy needed to break a bond Breaking a bond is always endothermic since energy is required to separate attracted atoms. | 80 | |
| 13857453139 | deltaBE and deltaH | deltaBE = BEproducts - BEreactants Endothermic reactions have a decrease in BErxn Exothermic reactions have an increase in BErxn | 81 | |
| 13857453140 | VSEPR & Molecular Orbital Model | VSEPR or Valence Shell Electron Repulsion Model uses valence electrons and the lewis dots to predict the structure of covalently bonded molecules. This is in AP Chem Molecular Orbital Model is more complex and more accurate, but will not be in AP Chem | 82 | |
| 13857453141 | Formal Charge | the difference between the normal number of lewis dots and the number of electrons controlled by an atom in a molecule (one per bond, two per lone pair) | 83 | |
| 13857453142 | Molecular Shapes and Domains | The number of unshared electrons plus the number of sigma bonds is the # of electron domains. The number of electron domains determine the Steric number The SN determines the shape of the molecule | 84 | |
| 13857453143 | Which atoms are stable with three domains? | Boron and Aluminum need only 6 pairs | 85 | |
| 13857453144 | Which atoms can have expanded octets with more than 4 domains? | Atoms that have electrons in d orbitals, in the 4th, 5th, 6th, and 7th period | 86 | |
| 13857453145 | Molecular shapes The symmetrical shape | - linear - trigonal planar - tetrahedral - trigonal bipyramidal - octahedral - square planar | 87 | |
| 13857453146 | Molecular shapes The unsymmetrical shape | - nonlinear - trigonal pyramidal - seesaw - square pyramidal | 88 | |
| 13857453147 | What is electronegativity? | Electronegativity is an atom's attraction to the shared pair of electrons in a covalent bond Differences in electronegativity can lead to polar bonds and result in a dipole | 89 | |
| 13857453148 | Hybridization | s and p orbitals combine in sigma bonding 2 domains = sp hybrid 3 domains = sp2 hybrid 4 domains = sp3 hybrid Each double bond only has one sigma bond, so double bonds only count for one domain. | 90 | |
| 13857453149 | Single vs Double bonds | Single bonds (sigma) are longer and weaker than double bonds Double bonds (sigma with pi) are shorter and stronger than single bonds and have a greater bond energy In a double bond, the pi bond is weaker | 91 | |
| 13857453150 | Resonance structures | If a double bond can be placed in alternative locations on the molecule, resonance structures are used to explain bonding. The double bond is averaged over all the resonance structures SO2 would have two resonance structures Sulfur oxygen's two bond lengths would be the same less, than a single but longer than a double. | 92 | |
| 13857453151 | Lewis Dot structure of H2O | 4 electron domains, 2 unbonded Nonlinear or bent (unsymmetrical) predicted angle 109 degrees Hybrid sp3 |  | 93 |
| 13857453152 | Lewis dot structure of NH3 | 4 electron domains, 3 bonded Trigonal pyramidal, predicted angle 109 degrees Hybrid explanation sp3 |  | 94 |
| 13857453153 | Lewis dot structure of CO2 | 2 electron domains, 2 bonded Linear, predicted angle 180 degrees 2 sigma bonds, 2 pi bonds Hybrid explanation, sp |  | 95 |
| 13857453154 | Unshared pairs of electrons and molecular shape | Unshared pairs have greater coulombic repulsive forces than electrons locked in covalent bonds Unshared pairs of electrons will decrease the predicted angles between atoms in a molecule Two unshared pairs of electrons warp the predicted angle of 109 degrees down to 105 degrees. | 96 | |
| 13857453155 | Types of intermolecular attractions | London Dispersion Forces Dipole-dipole forces Dipole-ion Hydrogen bonding | 97 | |
| 13857453156 | Hydrogen bonding | Intermolecular attraction Special dipole-dipole where molecule has H-N, H-O, or H-F The hydrogen bond is not a covalent bond The hydrogen atom develops a concentrated + charge due to the loss of its only electron. The attraction is the hydrogen dipole-intermolecular bond. This intermolecular attraction forms molecular solids and liquids. | 98 | |
| 13857453157 | How are physical properties affected by intermolecular attractions | High attractions: - Increase freezing points - Decrease vapor pressures - Increase boiling temperature - Increase deltaHfusion - Increase deltaHvaporization - Increase viscosities | 99 | |
| 13857453158 | Type of crystalline solid with low melting temperatures and no electrical conductivity as a solid or molten | Molecular solid: a solid made of individual molecules held together in a crystalline lattice by any of the following: LDFs Dipole Dipole forces Hydrogen bonding | 100 | |
| 13857453159 | Type of crystalline solid with high melting temperatures and no electrical conductivity when solid but conducts when molten | Ionic solid: A solide made of individual ions held together in a crystalline lattice by opposite charges of ions. | 101 | |
| 13857453160 | Type of crystalline solid which is malleable and electrically conductive as a solid and when molten | Metallic solid: Atoms held together by attraction to mobile valence electrons - sea of electrons Molecular motion interferes with electron movement | 102 | |
| 13857453161 | Impurities put in between atom lattice in metals | interstitial alloys, increase hardness and strength by stressing crystal lattice, much smaller atoms | 103 | |
| 13857453162 | Impurities replacing atoms in metallic lattice | substitutional alloy Different size atoms used, increases strength by preventing movement in lattice | 104 | |
| 13857453163 | Alloys in chemistry | Sometimes an alloy will alter the chemistry of pure metal Adding Cr to Fe will prevent Fe from rusting. | 105 | |
| 13857453164 | Type of crystalline solid with a very high melting temperature composed of nonmetal atoms | Network solids - covalently bonded macromolecules 3d: Diamond, silicon carbide, quartz 2d: graphite, mica, asbestos | 106 | |
| 13857453165 | Type of crystalline solid with a very high melting temperature composed of metalloid atoms What are they and what special electrical properties do they have? | The metalloids silicon and germanium are network molecular solids with 4 valence electrons Metalloids conduct electricity poorly as a solid but increase in conductivity with increased temperature | 107 | |
| 13857453166 | p-doping | p-semiconductors Si or Ge 4-valence electron solid is doped with elements with 3-valence electrons The missing electron produces positive charged holes in crystal lattice to allow for current flow | 108 | |
| 13857453167 | n-doping | n-semiconductors Si or Ge 4-valence electron solid is doped with elements with 5 valence electrons. The extra electron produces conductive negative charges in crystal lattice to allow for current flow. Electronic devices such as transistors and diodes are formed using n and p semiconductors. | 109 | |
| 13857453168 | Rf | ratio of the distance moved by the solute to the distance moved by the solvent | 110 | |
| 13857453169 | How to calculate K3 given K1 and K2 | Take each K to the power of the coefficient, then multiply. | 111 | |
| 13857453170 | K of the reverse reaction | 1/K | 112 | |
| 13857453171 | Factor for increased melting temperatures of ionic compounds | The smaller the ion and greater the charge, the higher the MT | 113 | |
| 13857453172 | Signs for deltaH and deltaS for fusion, vaporization, and sublimation | Vaporization: deltaH + and deltaS + Fusion: deltaH + and deltaS + Sublimation: deltaH + and deltaS + These processes break bonds and are endothermic | 114 | |
| 13857453173 | Signs for deltaH and deltaS for freezing and condensation | Freezing: deltaH - and deltaS - Condensation: deltaH - and deltaS - | 115 | |
| 13857453174 | Alkane, alkene, and alkyne's composition, intermolecular attractions, and solubility in water | Only C and H are in the formula, no dipoles. IMF's: only LDFs Not soluble in water | 116 | |
| 13857453175 | Alkane, alkene, and alkyne's bonding and hybridization | alkanes: C-C sp3 hybridization alkenes: C=C sp2 hybridization alkynes: C=-C sp hybridization | 117 | |
| 13857453176 | Alcohol functional group, imf, and solubility | C-OH IMFs: Hydrogen bonding and London Forces smaller changes are soluble in water (neither acids nor bases) | 118 | |
| 13857453177 | Carboxylic acids' functional group and intermolecular attractions | Carboxylic COOH IMFs: hydrogen bonding and london forces | 119 | |
| 13857453178 | Carboxylic acids' acid reactions and name change | Weakly ionize with water, turns from -cooh to -coo- | 120 | |
| 13857453179 | Amines' intermolecular attractions | -NH2 IMFs: Hydrogen bonding and London forces | 121 | |
| 13857453180 | Amines base reactions and name change | C-NH2 + H2O --> C=NH3 + OH- The weak base, amine, turns into an amide, a weak conjugate acid | 122 | |
| 13857453181 | Functional groups | aldehyde - OCH Ester - (embedded oxygen with double bond o) ether - embedded oxygen ketone - c double bond o | 123 | |
| 13857453182 | What are mers and polymers? | Polymers (aka plastics) are long-chain carbon chains with repeating units (mers) | 124 | |
| 13857453183 | What type of molecular substances will dissolve in water? What type of ionic substances will dissolve in water? | Soluble molecular substances: Molecular substances with strong dipoles and low LDFs will dissolve in water Molecular substances with -OH for hydrogen bonding and low LDFs will dissolve in water Soluble ionic substances: All substances with sodium, potassium and ammonium cations, and nitrate anions will dissolve in water to form dipole-ion attractions with water Other ionic substances may dissolve in water if their ion-dipole attractions to water are greater than their cation-anion attractions | 125 | |
| 13857453184 | What is distillation and the distillate? | Distillation is used to separate solution mixtures by evaporating the most volatile components. The condensed vapor is called the distillate. | 126 | |
| 13857453185 | What is chromatography? | Chromatography is a method of separating small quantities of components of a mixture using differences in intermolecular attractions. Typically, there is a solvent and a fixed media. The solvent will carry the substances in the mixture with similar IMFs to the solvent, leaving behind the substances that are more attracted to the fixed media. | 127 | |
| 13857453186 | What does Rf indicate? | Rf is an indicator of the mixture component's attraction to the solvent. If the Rf is close to 1, then the solute's IMF's are the same as the solvent. If the Rf is small, then the solute's IMF's will be similar to the fixed media. | 128 | |
| 13857453187 | What is a spectrophotometer and how does it work? | A spectrophotometer uses the absorption of light to determine the concentration of solution. | 129 | |
| 13857453188 | What wavelength of light is appropriate for use in spectrophotometry? | The appropriate wavelength of light is the set of wavelengths that are absorbed most strongly by the solution. | 130 | |
| 13857453189 | [concentration] with absorbance | The concentration is directly proportional to the absorbance | 131 | |
| 13857453190 | Units for rate | Loss of reactant concentration/time rate = M/s or atm/s or torr/s rate law units must multiply out to make M/s | 132 | |
| 13857453191 | What is the rate law expression for a reaction? | rate = k[A]x[B]y x and y can be determined experimentally or from a reaction mechanism | 133 | |
| 13857453192 | What is the instantaneous rate law expression, rate constant unit, and concentration-time graph for a zero-order reaction? | rate = k[A]0 unit = M/s line is straight | 134 | |
| 13857453193 | What is the instantaneous rate law expression, rate constant unit, and concentration-time graph for a first-order reaction? | rate = k[A]1 unit = 1/s logarithmic - ln(x) gets you a straight line. | 135 | |
| 13857453194 | What is the ln[concentration]-time graph for a first order reaction? What does the slope of this line represent? | slope = rate constant, k, for rate = k[A]1 | 136 | |
| 13857453195 | When dealing with time and concentration, how does the half-life of a 1st order reaction relate to the rate constant? | half-life time = 0.693/k or k=0.693/half-life time Always look for half-life in 1st order rate law problems to quickly determine rate constant. | 137 | |
| 13857453196 | 2nd order reaction curve of 1/x vs time What does the slope of this line represent? | Slope of 1/[A]=k: rate = k[A]2 | 138 | |
| 13857453197 | Units for reaction constant k | Zero order: k unit = M/s First order: k unit = 1/s Second order: k unit = 1/Ms The molarities of the reactants must multiply out to produce M/s | 139 | |
| 13857453198 | Energy barrier to the formation of products that determines the reaction rate | Ea, the activation energy, is always endothermic Activation energy does not change the deltaH of the reaction | 140 | |
| 13857453199 | What two factors are required for a successful activated complex collision? | 1. The collision must have sufficient energy to create the activated complex. 2. The collision must have the proper orientation for the collision to make the activated complex. On FRQs regarding successful collisions, both factors must be mentioned for credit. | 141 | |
| 13857453200 | What is kinetic control of a reaction? | High activation energies may slow the rate of a thermodynamically favored reaction so much that it may not occur because none of the collisions can be successful to make the product | 142 | |
| 13857453201 | What does a catalyst do? | Catalyst lowers the Ea for both forward and reverse reactions. A catalyst allows the reaction to reach equilibrium faster. | 143 | |
| 13857453202 | What doesn't a catalyst do? | A catalyst doesn't change the equilibrium constant K. Catalyst does not change deltaG or deltaH | 144 | |
| 13857453203 | How is a catalyst identified in a multi-step reaction? How is an intermediate identified in a multi-step reaction? Which of the two can be included in a rate law? | Step 1: A+B=C Step 2: C+D = E+B Net: A+D = E B, the catalyst, is present as a reactant and produced as a product later in a multi-step reaction C is an intermediate, and even if it were in the slow step, would never be included in a rate law expression B is a catalyst and may be included in a rate law rate = k[a][b] | 145 | |
| 13857453204 | How to calculate deltaH from BE | BErxn = BEreactants = BEproducts | 146 | |
| 13857453205 | In a reaction pathway energy diagram, how is the slow step identified? | The slow step has the higher speed bump (bigger activation energy) | 147 | |
| 13857453206 | In a multi-step reaction, which step determines the rate law expression? | The slowest step in the reaction determines the reactants in the rate law expression | 148 | |
| 13857453207 | How does an equilibrium reaction affect the reaction rate? | An equilibrium reaction preceding a slow step will result in the reactants of the fast equilibrium step to be included in the rate law expression Step 1: A=X fast Step 2: X+A=>B slow Step 1 has an equilibrium that will affect [X]. A can be used to substitute [X] rate = k[A]^2 | 149 | |
| 13857453208 | What does the Boltzmann Molecular Speed graph look like at different temperatures? What is plotted on the X and Y axis, and how does it explain the increase of a reaction rate? | At a higher temperature, the total number of molecules is unchanged, but a greater percentage have the energy for successful collisions. y axis is the number of molecules at a given speed x. | 150 | |
| 13857453209 | Keq | The equilibrium constant is the ratio of products/reactants Keq > 1 means a greater concentration of products than reactants when the reaction has reached equilibrium Keq < 1 means a greater concentration of reactants than products when reaction reaches equilibrium An equilibrium constant in the area of millions means the reaction will go to completion A really tiny Keq means very little product will be made | 151 | |
| 13857453210 | Kc and Kp | Kc = Kp only when mole gas reactant = mol gas product | 152 | |
| 13857453211 | Solids and liquids in the Keq expression | (s) and (l) are never included in the equilibrium expression because the concentrations of pure substances in a reaction rarely change | 153 | |
| 13857453212 | Temperature and the equilibrium constant | K is the value of the equilibrium expression at equilibrium. It is only changed by temperature. In exothermic rxn, K decreases with increases in pressure In endothermic rxn, K increases with increases in pressure | 154 | |
| 13857453213 | Eq quotient and Eq constant | Q < K Reaction will approach the products side Q > K Reaction will approach the reactants side Q=K equilibrium has been reached | 155 | |
| 13857453214 | K for a multi-step reaction where equations add up to make an overall reaction | Koverall = Kstep1 x Kstep2 | 156 | |
| 13857453215 | Equilibrium constant relationship between forward and reverse reactions | Kforward = 1/Kreverse | 157 | |
| 13857453216 | Common ions | The common ion is either the cation or anion of the dissolving substance that is added separately to the equilibrium system. | 158 | |
| 13857453217 | What is a polyprotic substance? | A polyprotic acid can donate more than one proton A polyprotic acid will have more than one vertical line in its titration curve The Ka of the removal of all the protons is the product of each proton's Ka | 159 | |
| 13857453218 | What is an amphiprotic substance? | A substance that can donate or accept a proton and thus act as an acid or base. H2O and HCO3- are amphiprotic | 160 | |
| 13857453219 | Neutral water Relationship between [H] and [OH] pH and pOH Kw @ 25 C pKw @ 25 C Temperature changes for Kw and pKw | Neutral water is when [H+] = [OH-] and pH = pOH At all temperatures Kw = [H] x [OH] and pKw = pH + pOH neutral water: pH = 7, pKw = 14, Kw = 1e14 As temp increases, pKw decreases and Kw increases | 161 | |
| 13857453220 | Bronsted acids | proton donors | 162 | |
| 13857453221 | Bronsted bases | proton acceptors | 163 | |
| 13857453222 | How are conjugates related to the original acid-base and which will be favored at equilibrium | An acid reactant will become the conjugate base. A base reactant will become the conjugate acid. The stronger of the two acids (acid or conjugate acid) will be present in lower concentrations at equilibrium) | 164 | |
| 13857453223 | Ka and Kb relationship in an acid and its conjugate base | 1e-14 = Ka x Kb 14 = pKa + pKb | 165 | |
| 13857453224 | Molecular, Ionic and Net Ionic reaction | Molecular: HA + BOH -> H2O + AB Ionic: H+ + A- + B+ + OH- -> H2O + A- + B+ Net Ionic: H+ + OH- -> H2O | 166 | |
| 13857453225 | Net ionic reaction for a weak acid and a strong base | Weak acid, strong base Net ionic: HA+ OH- -> A- + H2O | 167 | |
| 13857453226 | NIE for a weak base and a strong acid | Weak base, strong acid H+ + B -> HB+ | 168 | |
| 13857453227 | Equivalence point in titration and indicators | Equivalence point means that the solutions have been mixed and all the acid HA has reacted and been changed into A- An indicator changes color at a specific pH range which is the pKa of the indicator The idea indicator has a pKa = to the pH at the equivalence point. | 169 | |
| 13857453228 | Overtitration | Once past the equivalence point, the excess strong acid or base moles and volume of solution are used to determine the pH or pOH directly without the need for a Keq expression | 170 | |
| 13857453229 | Half-equivalence point | When o.5 of the [HA] has turned into [A-] remaining [HA] = [A-] Ka = [H+] pKa = pH | 171 | |
| 13857453230 | Buffers calculations | Henderson Hasselbalch equation pH = pKa + log [A+]/[HA] | 172 | |
| 13857453231 | strong acid titrated with strong base | pH equivalence = 7 | 173 | |
| 13857453232 | weak acid titrated with strong base | pH>7 large amounts of conj. base | 174 | |
| 13857453233 | weak base titrated with strong acid | pH<7 large amounts of conj. acid | 175 | |
| 13857453234 | Diprotic Acid titration curve | Diprotic acid curve H2A titrated with strong base Two equivalence points Two half-titration points |  | 176 |
| 13857453235 | What is S? | S is entropy S can be measured in absolute value S of elements is not 0 | 177 | |
| 13857453236 | How does the S of phases of a substance compare? | Comparative entropy of the phases
s| 178 | | |
| 13857453237 | What reactions increase S? | Decomposition reactions Reactions that produce gases | 179 | |
| 13857453238 | What are the units of S? | J/K | 180 | |
| 13857453239 | deltaSrxn | deltaSrs = Sproducts - Sreactants | 181 | |
| 13857453240 | What is deltaG | deltaG is standard Gibbs free energy deltaG = 0 equilibrium deltaG is negative, thermofavored deltaG is positive, nonfavored | 182 | |
| 13857453241 | What are its units of deltaG | kJ/mol | 183 | |
| 13857453242 | deltaG equation | deltaG = deltaH - tdeltaS | 184 | |
| 13857453243 | Oxidation number of any pure element | Zero | 185 | |
| 13857453244 | What happens in oxidation | Loss of electrons, at the anode | 186 | |
| 13857453245 | What happens in reduction | Gain of electrons, at the cathode | 187 | |
| 13857453246 | Standard voltage calculation | Ecell = Ecathode - Eanode | 188 | |
| 13857453247 | Galvanic cell equation and standard voltage for hydrogen reduction | Half reaction 2H+ + 2e- = H2 Voltage = 0 | 189 | |
| 13857453248 | Nernst equation | Ecell = E˚cell - (RT/nF) * ln Q | 190 | |
| 13857453249 | Galvanic vs Electrolytic Cells | Galvanic cells do work and run spontaneously deltaG = - Ecell = + Keq is large Galvanic cells will usually be shown with the solutions of the two half-cells separated with a salt bridge Electrolytic cells must have a power source that forces the electrons to the cathode Reduction occurs at the cathode Oxidation occurs at the anode deltaG is positive Ecell is negative Keq is close to 0 Salt bridge is not necessary | 191 | |
| 13857453250 | Where to find the number of coulombs of electrons in a mole | Faraday's constant: 96485 coulombs/mol e- | 192 | |
| 13857453251 | Electrolytic cell current-time calculations for mol of substance reduced | 1) amps x seconds = coulombs of electrons 2) coulombs of electrons are divided by Faraday's constant 3) mole e- from electrolysis/ electrons used in reduction reaction | 193 | |
| 13857453252 | deltaG and E | deltaG = -nFE Equation is on equation sheet deltaG will be in J/mol | 194 | |
| 13857453253 | IMF's | There are always IMFs between molecules. | 195 | |
| 13857453254 | PV=PV | Boyles Law | 196 | |
| 13857453255 | V/T = V/T | Charles law | 197 | |
| 13857453256 | As Kw increases | pH decreases | 198 | |
| 13857453257 | In combustion reactions, remember | that H2O has two hydrogen atoms | 199 | |
| 13857453258 | Stronger acids | weaker conjugate base | 200 | |
| 13857453259 | Stronger base | weaker conjugate acid | 201 | |
| 13857453260 | Peroxide oxidation | Oxygen's oxidation number is always -1, rather than -2. | 202 | |
| 13857453261 | Intermolecular forces present | Only in covalent molecules, because ionic ones are bonded by ionic forces only. | 203 | |
| 13857453262 | HI BrONClF | Mnemonic for the diatomics: Hydrogen Iodine Bromine Oxygen Nitrogen Chlorine Fluorine | 204 |
Flashcards
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Terms : Hide Images
| 9712304237 | alliteration | repetition of the same letter or sound, usually at the beginning of a series of words | 0 | |
| 9712304238 | anaphora | repetition of a word or words at the beginning of successive clauses | 1 | |
| 9712304239 | apostrophe | sudden break from the previous narrative for an address, in the second person, of some person or object, absent or present | 2 | |
| 9712304240 | asyndeton | omission of conjunctions | 3 | |
| 9712304241 | chiasmus | arrangement of words in a mirroring, or ABBA, pattern, found most often with pairs of nouns and adjectives | 4 | |
| 9712304243 | enjambment | continuation of a unit of thought beyond the end of one verse and into the first few feet of the next | 5 | |
| 9712304244 | hyperbaton | distanced placement of two words which are logically meant to be understood together | 6 | |
| 9712304245 | hyperbole | exaggeration for rhetorical effect | 7 | |
| 9712304246 | litotes | understatement, often enhanced by the use of the negative | 8 | |
| 9712304247 | metaphor | implied comparison achieved through a figurative use of words; the word is used not in its literal sense, but in one analogous to it | 9 | |
| 9712304248 | metonymy | substitution of one word for another which it suggests | 10 | |
| 9712304249 | onomatopoeia | use of words of which the sound suggests the sense | 11 | |
| 9712304250 | personification | attribution of personality to an impersonal thing | 12 | |
| 9712304251 | polysyndeton | overabundance of conjunctions | 13 | |
| 9712304252 | rhetorical question | figure of speech in the form of a question that is asked in order to make a point and without the expectation of a reply | 14 | |
| 9712304253 | simile | explicit comparison between two things using 'like' or 'as' | 15 | |
| 9712304254 | synchesis | interlocking word order; abAB | 16 | |
| 9712304255 | tmesis | separation into two parts of a word normally written as one, often for a visual effect | 17 |
Flashcards
AP CSP Unit 2 Flashcards
Terms for Chapter 1 of Unit 2 of AP CSP. Copied/adapted from Mrs_Waller_APCSPTEACHER (thanks!)
Terms : Hide Images
| 13860209739 | Byte | technical term for 8 bits of data |  | 0 |
| 13860209740 | Kilobyte (KB) | 1024 bytes (sometimes approximated as "about 1000" bytes) | 1 | |
| 13860209741 | Megabyte (MB) | 1,024 kilobytes (sometimes approximated as "about 1000" kilobytes) | 2 | |
| 13860209742 | Gigabyte (GB) | 1,024 megabytes (sometimes approximated as "about 1000" megabytes) | 3 | |
| 13860209743 | Terabyte (TB) | 1,024 gigabytes (sometimes approximated as "about 1000" gigabytes) | 4 | |
| 13860209744 | Petabyte (PB) | 1,024 terabytes (sometimes approximated as "about 1000" terabytes) | 5 | |
| 13860209745 | Exabyte (EB) | 1,024 petabytes (sometimes approximated as "about 1000" petabytes) | 6 | |
| 13860209746 | .bmp | (bitmap image file or bitmap) is a raster graphics image file format used to store digital images. (not compressed) |  | 7 |
| 13860209747 | .gif | (acronym for Graphics Interchange Format) a bitmap image format which uses the LZW lossless data compression technique to reduce the file size without degrading the visual quality. Supports 8 bits per pixel for each image and animations. |  | 8 |
| 13860209748 | .jpg or .jpeg | (acronym for Joint Photographic Experts Group), a commonly used lossy compression format for digital images, particularly for those images produced by digital photography. The format supports adjustable degrees of compression. |  | 9 |
| 13860209749 | .mp3 | an audio coding format for digital audio which uses a form of lossy data compression which works by reducing (or approximating) certain components of the audio that are considered to be beyond audible human hearing. |  | 10 |
| 13860209750 | .wav | (Waveform Audio File Format) an audio coding format standard for storing an audio bitstream of uncompressed audio data. |  | 11 |
| 13860209751 | .txt | a computer format that is structured as a sequence of lines of electronic text. |  | 12 |
| 13860209752 | .zip | an archive file format that supports lossless data compression; may contain one or more files or directories. |  | 13 |
| 13860209753 | .png | (Portable Network Graphics) a raster graphics file format that supports lossless data compression. |  | 14 |
| 13860209754 | Image | A type of data used for graphics or pictures. |  | 15 |
| 13860209755 | File Extensions | the endings of file names that indicate to the computer the format for how the underlying bits are organized. |  | 16 |
AP World History Ch.25 Test Flashcards
Terms : Hide Images
| 9056168060 | Muhammad Ali's creation of modern Egypt was shaped by the shock of | Napoleon's occupation of Egypt. | 0 | |
| 9056168061 | Although the East India Company was founded in 1600, the British gradually colonized India by | defeating the French and picking apart the decaying Mughal Empire. | 1 | |
| 9056168062 | "Recaptives" were | slaves who were taken off illicit trade ships by the British and stationed in Sierra Leone. | 2 | |
| 9056168063 | The kingdoms of Lesotho and Swazi were created | The kingdoms of Lesotho and Swazi were created | 3 | |
| 9056168064 | The Indian Civil Service | theoretically open to all, but actually excluded Indians. | 4 | |
| 9056168065 | In addition to intruding into Africa militarily, European explorers were peacefully | All of these | 5 | |
| 9056168066 | Sepoys were Indian troops who | were hired and trained to protect European companies' warehouses. | 6 | |
| 9056168067 | The Indian National Congress initially sought more rights for Indians | by promoting ethnic and religious unity. | 7 | |
| 9056168068 | The first secular school for Indian women was founded in | Calcutta | 8 | |
| 9056168069 | The French invasion of Algeria was originally the result of | a dispute over the French government not repaying Algerian loans. | 9 | |
| 9056168070 | The deadliest disease in India was kala mari (black death), also known as | cholera. | 10 | |
| 9056168071 | Cape Colony was initially important to the British because it | was a supply station for the lengthy India route. | 11 | |
| 9056168072 | In 1870, the Indian railroad system was | among the world's largest. | 12 | |
| 9056168073 | The Zulu succeeded in creating a new | national identity. | 13 | |
| 9056168074 | What was the British raj? | British rule of India | 14 | |
| 9056168075 | Who was David Livingstone? | A Scottish missionary and explorer | 15 | |
| 9056168076 | What prevented the Sepoy Rebellion in 1857 from becoming a full-scale revolution? | No sense of Indian nationalism | 16 | |
| 9056168077 | The migration of Afrikaners from British-ruled Cape Colony for fertile land in the north is called the | Great Trek. | 17 | |
| 9056168078 | A significant difference in Ethiopian identification compared to other African nations was | It was predominantly Christian for 1500 years. | 18 | |
| 9056168079 | The largest of the mew Muslim reform movements occurred in which area? | the Hausa states | 19 | |
| 9056168080 | Africans wanted European manufactured goods, so when the slave trade ended, they | expanded their "legitimate" trade by developing new exports. | 20 | |
| 9056168081 | The first reformer to advocate Pan-Indian nationalism was | Rammohun Roy. | 21 | |
| 9056168082 | Why did the slave trade end? | Slave revolts and humanitarian reform movements ended it. | 22 | |
| 9056168083 | The "Bombay Presidency" was | territory taken over by the East India Company after defeating the Maratha Confederation. | 23 | |
| 9056168084 | The most successful export from West Africa after abolition was | palm oil. | 24 | |
| 9056168085 | The underlying goal of British imperialism in the mid-nineteenth century was to | promote British trade overseas. | 25 | |
| 9056168086 | Eastern African states are referred to as "secondary empires" because they were | not directly controlled by Europeans but were supplied with European weapons. | 26 | |
| 9056168087 | By encouraging self-government in the South Pacific settler colonies, Britain | All of these | 27 | |
| 9056168088 | The first British settlers in Australia were | exiled convicts. | 28 | |
| 9056168089 | The Nguni peoples of southeastern Africa traditionally had pursued a life based on | cattle and agriculture. | 29 | |
| 9056168090 | What radically altered the social structure of the coastal trading communities? | palm oil exports. | 30 | |
| 9056168091 | Ironically, the British were the world's greatest slave traders and later | became the most aggressive suppressers of the slave trade. | 31 | |
| 9056168092 | Progress in women's rights in India was made in all of the following forms except: | outlawing prostitution. | 32 | |
| 9056168093 | Egypt was able to build a modern state based on cotton exports until | the American cotton market resumed after the Civil War. | 33 | |
| 9056168094 | A significant impetus to increasing global commercial expansion in the nineteenth century included | clipper ships. | 34 | |
| 9056168095 | Plantation workers served contracts of indenture that usually lasted | five to seven years. | 35 | |
| 9056168096 | The African slave trade was perpetuated by | the Sokoto Caliphate. | 36 | |
| 9056168097 | Why was the Sepoy Rebellion a turning point in the history of India? | India came to be ruled directly by the British government. | 37 |
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