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AP World History Chapter 22 (Strayer) Flashcards

Chapter 23 Independence and Development in the Global South, 1914 - Present

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9595022431Decolonization1914-Present : Process in which many African and Asian states won their independence from Western colonial rule, in most cases by negotiated settlement with gradual political reforms and a program of investment rather than through military confrontation0
9595022432Indian National Congress1914-Present : Organization established in 1885 by Western-educated elite Indians in an effort to win a voice in governance of India; over time, the INC became a major popular movement that won India's independence from Britain1
9595022433Mahatma Gandhi1914-Present : Usually referred to by his sobriquet "Mahatma" (Great Soul), Gandhi (1869-1948) was a political leader and the undoubted spiritual leader of the Indian drive or independence from Great Britain2
9595022434Satyagraha1914-Present : Literally, "truth force"; Mahatma Gandhi's political philosophy, which advocated confrontational but nonviolent political action3
9595022435Muslim League1914-Present : The All-India Muslim League, created in 1906, was a response to the Indian national Congress in India's struggle for independance from Britain; the League's leader, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, argued that regions of India with a Muslim majority should form a separate state called Pakistan4
9595022436Muhammad Ali Jinnah1914-Present : LEader of India's All India Muslim League and first president of the breakaway state of Pakistan (1876-1948)5
9595022437African National Congress1914-Present : South African political party established in 1912 by elite Africans who sought to win full acceptance in colonial society; it only gradually became a popular movement that came to control the government in 19946
9595022438Nelson Mandela1914-Present : South African nationalist (b. 1918) and leader of the African National Congress who was imprisoned for twenty - seven years on charges of treason, sabotage and conspiracy to over through the apartheid government of South Africa; he was elected president of South Africa in 1994, four years after he was finally released from prison7
9595022439Black Consciousness1914-Present : South African movement that sought to foster pride, unity and political awareness among the country's African majority and often resorted to violent protest against white minority rule8
9595022440Soweto1914-Present : Impoverished black neighborhood outside Johannesburg, South Africa, and the site of a violent uprising in 1976 in which hundreds were killed; that rebellion began a series of violent protests and strikes that helped end apartheid9
9595022443Kemal Ataturk1914-Present : Founder and first president of the Republic of Turkey (1881 - 1938); as military commander and leader of the Turkish national movement, he made Turkey into a secular state10
9595022444Ayatollah Khomeini1914-Present : Important Shia ayattolah (advanced scholar of Islamic law and religion) who became the leader of Iran's Islamic revolution and ruled Iran from 1979 until his death in 198911
9634101947Military governmentForm of government when the military took over and ruled. Promised to establish democracy and give power to the people at some point in the future12
9634101948Globalization of democracySocial movement towards an institutional system of democracy. It would bypass all and give world citizens democratic access and a say in global activities13
9634101949Import substitution and export-led industrializationA trade and economic policy aiming to speed up industrialization process of a country by exporting good when the nation has a comparative advantage14
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Transcription Flashcards

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11837937866Death cap mushroomA kind of poisonous mushroom; death comes from ingesting a toxin called amanitin.0
11837939635a-amanitin found in amanita phalloides (deathcap mushrooms) inhibitsRNA polymerase II, the enzyme that transcribes protein-encoding genes in eukaryotes Amanitin binds to RNA polymerase and jams the moving parts of the enzyme, interfering with its ability to move along the DNA template1
11838017647Ribozymescatalytic RNA molecules that function as enzymes and can splice RNA, and even catalyze the formation of peptide bonds between amino acids.2
11838042151Early in biological life, RNA probably served as both,the original genetic material and as biological catalysts3
11838048461Differences in DNA and RNA1) RNA has ribose sugar, instead of deoxyribose 2) RNA contains uracil in place of thymine 3) RNA is single stranded, not double stranded RNA has a hydroxyl group on the 2' carbon atom, making RNA more reactive the DNA which has a hydrogen atom4
11838066210Primary RNA vs secondar RNA5
11838103924rRNAribosomal RNA; type of RNA that makes up part of the ribosome6
11838104408mRNAmessenger RNA; type of RNA that carries instructions from DNA in the nucleus to the ribosome7
11838106549iRNAInterference RNA8
11838108870pre-mRNAprecursor mRNA; the first strand of mRNA produced by gene transcription that contains both introns and exons9
11838120006tRNAtransfer RNA; type of RNA that carries amino acids to the ribosome10
11838122537snRNAFound only in the nucleus of eukaryotes and functions to remove introns from mRNA known as "snurps" Converts pre-mRNA to mRNA11
11838146998snoRNAprocessing of rRNA12
11838148539miRNAa class of functional RNA that regulates the amount of protein produced by a eukaryotic gene Carry out iRNA, which helps to trigger the degradation of mRNA or inhibit the translation into proteins13
11838161442piRNAPiwi binding RNA, thought to aid in silencing of transposons during gamete production14
11838161443crRNACRISPR RNA assists destruction of foreign DNA15
11838167206lncRNALong non coding RNA, gene silencing (Xist in x-chromosome inactivation)16
11838190117Pair the RNA to it's function a) snRNA b) tRNA c) miRNA d) rRNAa) pre-mRNA to to mRNA b) help to link amino acids into a polypeptide chain c) trigger the degradation of mRNA d) makes up ribosomes17
11838234831Three components of transcription1) A DNA template 2) Raw Material to build new RNA 3) The transcription apparatus, consisting of the proteins necessary for catalyzing the synthesis of RNA18
11838246647What is transcription?synthesis of an RNA molecule from a DNA template19
11838284007What is the difference between the template strand and the non-template strand?The template strand is the DNA strand that is copied into an RNA molecule, whereas the non-template strand is not copied20
11838298222Transcription unitIs a stretch of DNA that encodes an RNA molecule and the sequences necessary for its transcription.21
11838303018Promoterspecific region of a gene where RNA polymerase can bind and begin transcription22
11838308641RNA-coding regiona sequence of DNA nucleotides that is copied into an RNA molecule23
11838310054TerminatorA special sequence of nucleotides in DNA that marks the end of a gene. It signals RNA polymerase to release the newly made RNA molecule, which then departs from the gene24
11838319293Upstream and downstream is relation to transcriptionThe transcription apparatus is said to move downstream during transcription. It binds to the promoter (which is usually upstream of the transcription start site.) And moves toward the terminator (which is downstream of the start site) Downstream in the 5' on DNA25
11838365149Why do molecular biologists usually write out the the sequence of the non-template strand to comepare to the RNA being transcribed?Because the non-template strand will be the same, except the addition of uracil instead of Thymine26
11838375359Describe the function of a promoterServes as a sequence to which transcription apparatus binds Determines the first nucleotide that is transcribed into RNA Determines which DNA strand is template27
11838387644rNTPsribose nuceloside triphosphates used by RNA as precursors for RNA chain28
11838406315NOTE: RNA is synthesized from ribonucleoside triphosphates. Transcription is 5-> 3: Each new nucleotide is joined to the 3-OH group of the last nucleotide added tot eh growing RNA molecule29
11838410837RNA polymeraseEnzyme similar to DNA polymerase that binds to DNA and separates the DNA strands during transcription consists of 5 subunits30
11838430051core enzymeprokaryotic RNA polymerase consisting of α, α, β, and β' but missing σ; this complex performs elongation catalyzes the elongation of RNA by the addition of RNA nucleotides.31
11838439277sigma factorcontrols the binding of RNA polymerase to the promoter, without sigma, RNA polymerase initiates transcription at a random point along the DNA. The addition of the sigma factor makes the core enzyme into a holoenzyme Different sigma factors bind to different promoters32
11838643832RNA pol Itranscribes large rRNA33
11838643833RNA pol IITranscribes pre-mRNA, snoRNA, some meRNA, and some snRNA34
11838653145RNA pol IIITranscribes tRNA, rRNA, and some miRNA and some snRNA35
11838662250RNA pol IVFound in plants, transcribe RNA that play a role in DNA methylation and chromatin structure36
11838676211What is the function of a sigma factor?The sigma factor controls the binding of RNA polymerase to the promoter.37
11838683678three parts of transcription1. Initiation 2. Elongation 3. Termination38
11838683679InitiationTranscription apparatus assembles on the promoter and begins the synthesis of RNA39
11838692834ElongationDNA is threaded through RNA polymerase and the polymerase unwinds the DNA and adds new nucleotides, one at a time to the 3 end of the growing RNA strand40
11838704631Terminationthe recognition of the end of the transcription unit and the separation of the RNA molecule from the DNA template41
11838711904four steps of initiation1) promoter recognition 2) formation of a transcription bubble 3) creation of the first bonds between rNTP's 4) escape of the transcription apparatus from the promoter42
11838743122consensus sequenceComprises the most commonly encountered nucleotides found at a specific location in DNA or RNA. Usually implies that the sequence is associated with an important function TATA box43
11838752786TATA box (TATAATA)A promoter DNA sequence crucial in forming the transcription initiation complex. also known as the pribnow box44
11838771026upstream elementConsensus sequence found in some bacterial promoters that contains a number of A-T pairs and is found about 40 to 60 bp upstream of the transcription start site.45
11838774119What binds to the -10 consensus sequence found in most bacterial promoters?The holoenzyme ( core enzyme + sigma factor )46
11838792904Initial RNA synthesis47
11838808316Why do RNA molecules initially contain 3 phosphate groups at the 5' endInitial RNA Synthesis No primer is required to initiate the synthesis of the 5 end of the RNA molecule. Two of the three phosphate groups are cleaved from each rNTP as the nucleotide is added to the 3 end of a growing RNA molecule. However, because the 5 end of the first rNTP does not take part in the formation of a phosphodiester bond, all three of it's phosphate groups remain48
11838875775abortive initiationProcess during initiation of transcription in which RNA polymerase repeatedly generates and releases short transcripts, from 2 to 6 nucleotides in length, while still bound to the promoter. Occurs in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes.49
11838885701transcription bubbleThe site at which the double helix is unwound so that RNA polymerase can use one of the DNA strands as a template for RNA synthesis. generates + supercoiling ahead and - behind, topoisomerase helps with the stress50
11838896018Transcriptional pausinga temporary cessation of transcript elongation cause by backtracking51
11838904065backtrackingdisengages the 3'-OH group of the RNA molecule from the active site of RNA polymerase and temporarily halts further RNA synthesis52
11838990167NOTE: Transcription is initiated at the transcription start site, which, in bacterial cells, is determined by the binding of RNA polymerase to consensus sequences of the promoter. No primer is required. Transcription takes place within a transcription bubble. DNA is unwound ahead of the bubble and rewound behind it. There are frequent pauses in the process of transcription53
11839058346Rho-independent termination of transcription- most common - stem- loop structure (signals transcription termination): GC rich sequence (followed by several U's) with a high affinity for RNA poly, leads to formation of stem loop - Destabilizes open complex - RNA poly dissociated from DNA strand54
11839060072Rho-dependent terminationRho protein recognizes specific DNA sequences and causes a pause in the RNA polymerase55
11839112959polycistronic mRNAA group of genes that is often transcribed into a single RNA molecule56
11839126888What characteristics are most commonly found in rho-independent terminators?Inverted repeats followed by a string of adenine nucleotides57
11839133214The 9 basic rules of Transcription58
11839136959Differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic transcriptionEukaryotic cells possess three different RNA polymerases, each of which transcribes a different class of RNA and recognizes a different type of promoter. Thus, a genetic promoter cannot be described for eukaryotic cells; rather a promoters description depends on whether the promoter is recognized by RNA pol I, II, or III. Another difference is in the nature of promoter recognition and initiation. Many accessory proteins take part in the binding of eukaryotic RNA pol to DNA templates, and the different types of promoters require different proteins59
11839185996How can the proteins necessary for transcription gain access to eukaryotic DNA when it is complexed with histones?Chromatin structure is modified before transcription so that the DNA is in a more open configuration and is more accessible to the transcription machinery.60
11839200603What helps to destabilize chromatin to make it more accessible?acetyltransferases add acetyl groups to amino acids at the ends of the histone proteins which destabilize the nucleosome structure Chromatin remodelling proteins also can help to open up DNA61
11839222730NOTE: The initiation of transcription in eukaryotes requires modification of chromatin structure so that DNA is accessible to the transcription machinery62
11839227383general transcription factorsA set of proteins that bind to the promoter of a gene whose combined action is necessary for transcription.63
11839229535basal transcription apparatusa group of proteins that assemble near the start site and are sufficient to initiate minimal levels of transcription64
11839233592transcriptional activator protiensbind to specific DNA sequences and bring about higher levels of transcription by simulating the assembly of the basal transcription apparatus at the start site.65
11839242021Core promoterTATA box + transcription start site66
11839247698regulatory promoterDNA sequence located immediately upstream of the core promoter that affects transcription; contains consensus sequences to which transcriptional regulator proteins bind.67
11839249371EnchancersA segment of eukaryotic DNA containing multiple control elements, usually located far from the gene whose transcription it regulates.68
11839257456internal promotersCause initiation to occur a fixed distance upstream Have a short consensus sequence located *within* the transcription unit69
11839263201What is the difference between the core promoter and the regulatory promoter?The regulatory promoter is farther upstream of the gene and General transcription factors bind to the core promoter; transcriptional activator proteins bind to the regulatory promoter.70
11839282725TATA-binding protein (TBP)A general transcription factor that binds to the TATA box and assists in attracting other general transcription factors and RNA polymerase II to eukaryotic promoters.71
11839287333Picture of transcription initiaiton72
11839299462After RNA pol and general transcription factors have assembled on the core promoter...conformational changes take place in both the DNA and the polymerase. These changes cause 11-15 bp of DNA surrounding the transcription start site to unwind, producing the single-stranded DNA that will serve as a template for transcription73
11839316016What is the role of TFIID in transcription initiation?TFIID binds to the TATA box and helps to centre the RNA polymerase over the transcription start site74
11839365150How are the processes of RNA pol II termination in eukaryotes and rho-dependent termination in bacteria similar, and how are they different?Both processes use a protein that binds to the RNA molecule and moves down the RNA toward the RNA polymerase. They differ in that rho does not degrade the RNA, whereas Rat1 does so75
11870887800trasposonsa gene that can change its position within the genome sometimes creating reverse mutations76
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Biochemistry Flashcards

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10496538099GlycineNon-polar amino acid *Smallest side chain* Heme synthesis + Succinyl CoA Purine and creatinine synthesis Conjugated to *bile acids, drugs, and other metabolites* *Major inhibitory* neurotransmitter in *spinal cord*0
10496538100AlanineNon-polar amino acid Carrier of *ammonia* and *carbons of pyruvate from skeletal muscle to liver*1
10496538101Valine Leucine IsoleucineNon-polar amino acid Branched-chain amino acid whose metabolites accumulate in MSUD2
10496538102PhenylalanineNon-polar amino acid Accumulates in phenylketonuria Catalyzed to tyrosine via *phenylalanine hydroxylase*3
10496538103TryptophanNon-polar amino acid *Largest side chain* Precursor for *niacin, serotonin, melatonin*4
10496538104MethionineNon-polar amino acid Involves in transfer of *methyl groups* Precursor of homocysteine5
10496538105ProlineNon-polar amino acid Imino acid Fibrous structure of collagen and interrupts a-helices in globular proteins6
10496538106Serine Threonine TyrosineUncharged polar amino acid Hydroxyl group O-linked glycosylation and phosphorylation of proteins7
10496538107AsparagineUncharged polar amino acid Carbonyl and amide group for H-bonding Site for *N-linked glycosylation of proteins*8
10496538108GlutamineUncharged polar amino acid Carbonyl and amide group for H-bonding Deaminated by *glutaminase* resulting in formation of ammonia Major carrier of nitrogen to the liver from peripheral tissue9
10496538109CysteineUncharged polar amino acid Contains sulfhydryl group that is an active part of many enzymes Biosynthesis of CoA 2 form a *cystine*10
10496538110AspartateAcidic amino acid Negatively charged at neutral pH Participates in ionic interaction Serves as proton donors11
10496538111GlutamateAcidic amino acid Negatively charged at neutral pH Participates in ionic interaction Serves as proton donors *Precursor for GABA and glutathione*12
10496538112ArginineBasic amino acid Positively charged at neutral pH *Precursor fo creatinine, urea, and NO*13
10496538113LysineBasic amino acid Positively charged at neutral pH14
10496538114HistidineBasic amino acid No charge at neutral pH Used in the diagnosis of *folic acid* deficiency Concentration is dependent on circadian rhythm15
10496538115Cytochrome CImportant for O2 transfer in the ETC16
10496538116Uniquinone (CoQ)The only non-protein component of the ETC17
10496538117↑ NADH/NAD+ and FADH2/FAD ratios ↓ oxygen consumption ↓ ATPEffects of ETC inhibitors18
10496538118UncouplersIncreases permeability of the inner mitochondrial membrane to protons ↑ NADH/NAD+ and FADH2/FAD ratios ↓ oxygen consumption ↓ ATP Ex. aspirin19
10496538119Barbiturates Piericidin A Amytal RotenoneComplex I Inhibitors20
10496538120Malonate Carboxin TTFAComplex II Inhibitors21
10496538121Antimycin A DimercaprolComplex III Inhibitors22
10496538122Cyanide CO Sodium Azide Hydrogen SulfideComplex IV Inhibitors23
10496538123ATPase Synthase InhibitorsInhibits Complex V Proton gradient continues to rise, but no escape valve ETC eventually stops Ex. Oligomycin24
10496538124Reactive Oxygen SpeciesProduced by neutrophils to kill bacteria May be increased in reperfusion injury25
10496538125Oligomycin*Directly inhibits ATP synthase (Complex V)* Proton gradient increases but there is no "escape valve"26
10496538126AtractylosideInhibits the oxidative phosphorylation by *inhibiting the transporter of ADP into and ATP out of the mitochondrion*27
10496538127cAMPSecond messenger Protein kinase A Ex. glucagon, epinephrine (B, a2)28
10496538128IP3/DAGSecond messenger Protein kinase B Ex. epinephrine (a1)29
10496538129Tyrosine KinaseSecond messenger Protein kinase C Ex. ANP, NO30
10496538130IntracellularSecond messenger Direct entry into the cell and nucleus Ex. glucocorticoids, thyroid hormones31
10496538131GLUT 1GLUT Brain, kidney, colon, placenta, RBC *Glucose uptake*32
10496538132GLUT2GLUT Liver pancreas, small intestines, kidney *(basement membranes)* *Rapid uptake or release of glucose*33
10496538133GLUT3GLUT *Brain (more compared to GLUT1)*, kidney, pancreas *Glucose uptake*34
10496538134GLUT4GLUT Heart and skeletal muscle, adipose tissue Insulin-stimulated glucose uptake35
10496538135GLUT5GLUT Small intestine *lumen* - 5 letters Absorption of *fructose*36
10496538136SGLT-1SGLT Small intestine and kidney Na dependent active uptake of glucose against a concentration gradient37
10496538137GlycolysisGlucose metabolism that converts glucose to 3 carbon compounds to produce energy Location: occurs in the cytoplasm Substrate: glucose End products: 2 molecules of *pyruvate* or *lactate* Rate limiting enzyme: phosphofructokinase-138
10496538138Phosphofructokinase-1Rate limiting enzyme of Glycolysis Converts Fructose-6-Phosphate to Fructose-1,6- Bisphosphate Down regulated by ATP and citrate (energy not needed) Effector: *Fructose-2,6-bisphosphate*39
10496538139Fructose-2,6-bisphosphateActivator of *PFK-1*40
10496538140HexokinaseCatalyzes the phosphorylation of glucose to form glucose-6-phosphate in the first step of glycolysis Feedback-inhibited by *glucose-6-P* *Low Km and Vmax; high affinity*41
10496538141GlucokinaseCatalyzes the phosphorylation of glucose to form glucose-6-phosphate in the first step of glycolysis Feedback-inhibited by *fructose-6-P* *High Km and Vmax; low affinity*42
104965381421.5 ATPATP yield of NADH via *glycerophosphate shuttle*43
10496538143Glycerophosphate ShuttleShuttle which ATP yield of 1.5 ATP44
104965381442.5 ATPATP yield of NADH via *malate aspartate shuttle*45
10496538145Malate Aspartate ShuttleShuttle which ATP yield of 2.5 ATP46
10496538146Lactate DehydrogenaseEnzyme Converts pyruvate to *lactate*47
10496538147Pyruvate DecarboxylaseEnzyme Fermentation Converts pyruvate to *ethanol*48
10496538148ArsenicCompetes with inorganic phosphate as a substrate for glyceraldehyde-3-P dehydrogenase *Binds to lipoic acid*49
10496538149Fluoroacetate*Inhibits aconitase* leading to accumulation of *citrate*50
10496538150Isocitrate dehydrogenase a-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase Malate dehydrogenaseEnzymes in the Citric Acid Cycle that are involved in reactions that produce *NADH*51
10496538151Succinate dehydrogenaseEnzyme in the Citric Acid Cycle that are involved in reactions that produce *FADH2*52
104965381521. Thiamine - B1 2. FAD - B2 3. NAD+ - B3 4. Coenzyme A (Pantothenic acid) - B5 5. Lipoic acidCoenzymes of *Pyruvate Dehydrogenase* Shared with a-Ketoglutarate53
10496538153CitrateTCA intermediate Delivers acetyl CoA to the cytosol for fatty acid synthesis54
10496538154Succinyl CoATCA intermediate Used for heme synthesis and activation of ketone bodies in extrahepatic tissues55
10496538155MalateTCA intermediate May be used for gluconeogenesis56
10496538156a-KetoglutarateInhibited by aresnite and *increased ammonia (hyperammonemia related diseases)*57
10496538157Pyruvate CarboxylaseGluconeogenesis Step 1 enzyme Converts pyruvate to oxaloacetate Requires *biotin* and ATP Allosterically activated by acetyl CoA58
10496538158PEP CarboxykinaseGluconeogenesis Step 2 enzyme Converts oxaloacetate to phosphoenol pyruvate Requires GTP59
10496538159Fructose-1,6-bisphosphataseGluconeogenesis Step 9 enzyme Converts fructose-1,6-bisphospate to fructose-6-phosphate Rate limiting step in gluconeogenesis60
10496538160Glucose-6-phosphataseGluconeogenesis Step 11 enzyme Converts glucose-6-phosphate to glucose Final step shared with *glycogenolysis*61
10496538161Cori CycleCycle Lactate is formed by glycolysis in skeletal muscle and is transported to the liver where it is converted back to glucose through *gluconeogenesis*62
10496538162GlycogeninProtein that serves as a *primer for glycogen synthesis* when glycogen is completely depleted63
10496538163Phosphoglucomutase UDP-glucose PyrophosphorylaseEnzymes involved in the *synthesis of UDP-glucose* [2]64
10496538164Glycogen SynthaseEnzyme Forms *a(1->4) bond* between glucose residues *Rate-limiting step* Forms the linear portion65
10496538165Branching Enzyme Amylo a(1->4) -> a(1->6) TransglucosidaseEnzyme Forms new *a(1->6) bonds* by transferring 5 to 8 glucosyl residues *Forms the branching portion*66
10496538166Limit Dextrin4 glucosyl units in the process of glycogenolysis which signifies the end of the shortening stage Elevated in *debranching enzyme deficiency*67
10496538167Glycogen PhosphorylaseEnzyme Sequential *cleavage of a(1->4)* bonds between the glucosyl residues at the non-reducing ends of the glycogen chain Cleaves until 4 residues are left behind Coenzyme: *pyridoxine* - Vit B668
10496538168Phosphoglucomutase Glucose-6-phosphataseEnzyme Involved in the conversion of glucose-1-P to glucose-6-P *(muscle)* or glucose *(liver)*69
10496538169GalactokinaseEnzyme Phosphorylates galactose to *galactose-1-phosphate* Deficiency leads to *relatively mild symptoms, galactosemia, and cataract formation*70
10496538170Galactose-1-Phosphate UridyltransferaseEnzyme Converts *galactose-1-phosphate to UDP-galactose*71
10496538171UDP-Hexose-4-EpimeraseEnzyme Converts *UDP-galactose to UDP-glucose* which enters the gluconeogenesis pathway72
10496538172Aldolase BEnzyme Converts fructose-1-phosphate to DHAP and glyceraldehyde73
10496538173Aldolase ReductaseEnzyme Converts glucose to sorbitol74
10496538174Sorbitol DehydrogenaseEnzyme Converts sorbitol to fructose75
10496538175Glucuronic AcidEssential component of glycosaminoglycans Required in the detoxification reaction of insoluble compounds (bilirubin, steroids, morphine)76
10496538176L-gluconolactone OxidaseEnzyme Used in the synthesis of ascorbic acid in plants and animals77
10496538177NADPHReductive biosynthesis of fatty acids and steroids *Glutathione reduction* inside RBCs Cytochrome P450 monooxygenase system Synthesis of *NO* Bactericidal mechanism of *WBC*78
10496538178Linoleic acid 18:2 (9,12) Linolenic acid 18:3 (9,12,15)Essential Fatty Acids [2]79
10496538179Arachidonic AcidFatty acid Precursor of prostaglandins Derived from *linoleic acid*80
10496538180Fatty Acyl CoA SynthetaseEnzyme Activates fatty acid by converting it to Acyl-CoA in the *cytosol* Uses up *2 ATP*81
10496538181Smooth Endoplasmic ReticulumOrganelle where *fatty acids undergo elongation and desaturation*, introducing double bonds up to carbon 982
104965381821. DHAP from glycolysis 2. Phosphorylation of free glycerol*Sources of glycerol-3-phosphate*83
10496538183Hormone-sensitive LipaseEnzyme Catalyzes hydrolysis of of TAG to glycerol + 3 fatty acids Activated by *glucagon and epinephrine* Inhibited by *insulin*84
10496538184Propionyl CoA CarboxylaseEnzyme Converts *propionyl CoA to methylmalonyl CoA* Co-enzyme: *Biotin*85
10496538185Methylmalonyl CoA MutaseEnzyme Converts *methylmalonyl CoA to succinyl CoA* Co-enzyme: *Methylcobalamin*86
104965381867a-HydroxylaseEnzyme Converts *cholesterol to 7a-hydroxy-cholesterol* Produces primary bile acids, secondary bile acids, bile salts87
10496538187DesmolaseEnzyme Converts *cholesterol to pregnenolone* Produces glucorticoids, mineralocorticoids, testosterone, estradiol, 7-dehydrocholesterol*88
10496538188ThiophoraseEnzyme Breaks down *acetoacetate to acetoacetyl CoA* Found only in peripheral tissue and *NOT IN LIVER* Muscle prefers ketone bodies during fasting because no ATP is needed for its activation89
10496538189Cholic Acid Chenodeoxycholic AcidPrimary Bile Acids90
10496538190Deoxycholic Acid Lithocholic AcidSecondary Bile Acids91
10496538191Bile SaltsBile acids that are conjugated to *taurine* and *glycine*92
10496538192Apo A-1Apolipoprotein HDL Cofactor of lecithin, cholesterol acyltransferase93
10496538193Apo B-100Apolipoprotein Main apoprotein and mediates secretion of *VLDL*94
10496538194Apo B-48Apolipoprotein Main apoprotein and mediates secretion of chylomicron95
10496538195Apo C-IIApolipoprotein Cofactor of lipoprotein lipase - *peripherally cuts TAGs*96
10496538196Apo EApolipoprotein Mediates uptake of chylomicron remnants and IDLs97
10496538197AminotransferaseStep 1: Transamination Enzyme Catalyzes transamination, transfer of a-amino group to a-ketoglutarate forming glutamate Coenzyme: *Pyridoxine*98
10496538198Glutamine SynthetaseEnzyme Catalyzes glutamate combination with 2 ammonia to form glutamine99
10496538199Combination of Amino Acid to Kreb Cycle MetaboliteAlanine-Pyruvate Aspartate-Oxaloacetate Glutamate-a-ketoglutarate100
10496538200Glutamate DehydrogenaseStep 2: Oxidative Deamination Enzyme Catalyzes oxidative deamination of glutamate to release *free ammonia* Reaction occurs in the liver and kidney101
10496538201GlutaminaseEnzyme Catalyzes glutamine transport and deamination to release ammonia in the liver *(high protein diet)* and kidney *(metabolic acidosis)*102
10496538202ALA SynthaseEnzyme Rate-limiting step Catalyzes glycine + succinyl CoA -> d-aminolevulinic acid Co-factor: *Pyridoxine*103
10496538203ALA DehydrataseEnzyme Condenses 2 molecules of ALA Contains *zinc* Inhibited by heavy metal ions that replace zinc104
10496538204FerrochelataseEnzyme Enhances the introduction of Fe2+ into protoporphyrin IX Inhibited by *lead*105
10496538205Heme OxygenaseEnzyme Converts heme to biliverdin in the reticuloendothelial cells106
10496538206LigandinProtein Intracellular proteins that the bilirubin binds to in the liver107
10496538207Bilirubin GluconyltransferaseEnzyme Conjugates bilirubin to 2 molecules of glucoronic acid Deficient in *Crigler-Najjar I and II, and Gilbert syndrome* - indirect hyperbilirubinemia108
1049653820820%In the brain, ketone bodies can meet up to ____ of the energy requirement109
10496538209PRPP Glutamyl AmidotransferaseEnzyme This is the committed and key regulated step of purine synthesis. It is inhibited by its end product Activated by PRPP Adds first N to PRPP from glutamine. Also uses water and releases glutamate and PP110
10496538210PRPP SynthetaseEnzyme Converts *Ribose 5-Phosphate to PRPP* ATP -> AMP energy requirement111
10496538211Carbamoyl Phosphate Synthetase IIEnzyme Rate limiting enzyme of *de novo pyrimidine synthesis*112
10496538212Ribonucleotide ReductaseEnzyme Multi-subunit enzyme that reduces nucleoside diphosphates to their deoxy forms Redox reactions require *thioredoxin and NADPH*113
10496538213Adenine PhosphoribosyltransferaseEnzyme Salvages adenine by adding it to PRPP to make AMP114
10496538214Thymidylate SynthaseEnzyme Converts *dUMP to thymine* Cofactor: *N5,N10-methylene tetrahydrofolate* Inhibited by *5-fluorouracil*115
10496538215Hypoxanthine-Guanine PhosphoribosyltransferaseEnzyme Purine salvage/degraded to uric acid Hypoxanithine -> IMP Guanine -> GMP116
10496538216mRNARNA Largest Copies genetic information from DNA *Template for protein synthesis* MG cap at the 5'-end Poly-A tail at the 3'-end117
10496538217Dihydropteroate SynthetaseEnzyme Not present in eukaryotes Inhibited by *sulfonamides*118
10496538218Dihydrofolate ReductaseEnzyme Inhibited by *trimethoprim*119
10496538219B DNAMost common form of DNA Right-handed helix with 10 residues per turn120
10496538220rRNARNA Most abundant Act as sites for protein synthesis Modified by ribonucleases and endonucleases121
10496538221tRNARNA Smallest Adapter molecules that translate the nucleotide sequence of mRNA into specific amino acid Cloverleaf appearance122
10496538222Origin Recognition ComplexGroup of proteins that recognize the origin of replication site123
10496538223HelicaseDNA replication enzyme Unwinds the double helix124
10496538224TopoisomeraseDNA replication enzyme Relaxes the super coils Type I (Swivelase) Type II (Gyrase) - inhibited by fluoroquinolone125
10496538225PrimaseDNA replication enzyme Synthesizes short segments of *complementary RNA primers*126
10496538226DNA Polymerase IIIDNA replication enzyme *Elongates the DNA strand by adding new deoxyribonucleotides* Initiates after primase initiates action127
10496538227DNA Polymerase IDNA replication enzyme Ribonucleotide removal 5'->3' exonuclease128
10496538228DNA LigaseDNA replication enzyme Seals the nick by catalyzing the formation of the last phosphodiester bond, requiring hydrolysis of ATP129
10496538229Mismatched StrandErrors that escape proof reading Mismatch repair Ex. HNPCC130
10496538230Pyrimidine DimersExposure to UV light Nucleotide excision repair Ex. Xeroderma pigmentosum131
10496538231Base AlterationSpontaneous or deaminating compounds Base excision repair Ex. MUTYH-associated polyposis132
10496538232Double Strand BreaksIonizing radiation Free radicals Non-homologous end joining or homologous recombination Ex. SCID, breast cancer133
10496538233Pol IRNA polymerase Synthesizes: *rRNA*134
10496538234Pol IIRNA polymerase Synthesizes: *mRNA, IncRNA, miRNA, SnRNA*135
10496538235Pol IIIRNA polymerase Synthesizes: *tRNA, 5S rRNA*136
10496538236TATA CAATDNA promoter sequences in Eukaryotes137
10496538237p-independent TerminationTranscription termination Requires formation of a hairpin loop138
10496538238p-dependent TerminationTranscription termination Requires p protein to release RNA from DNA139
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Unit 2 AP Government Vocabulary Flashcards

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7871836718Public Opinionthe distribution of the population's beliefs about politics and policy issues0
7871836719censusA complete enumeration of a population.1
7871836720political cultureAn overall set of values widely shared within a society2
7871836721political socializationThe process by which we develop our political attitudes, values, and beliefs.3
7871836722samplea relatively small proportion of people who are chosen in a survey so as to be representative of the whole4
7871836723random samplingthe key technique employed by sophistication survey researchers, which operates on the principle that everyone should have an equal probability of being selected for the sample5
7871836725random-digit dialinga technique used by pollsters to place telephone calls randomly to both listed and unlisted numbers when conducting a survey6
7871836726exit pollpublic opinion surveys used by major media pollsters to predict electoral winners with speed and precision7
7871836727political ideologya coherent set of beliefs about politics, public policy, and public purpose. It helps give meaning to political events,personalities, and policies8
7871836728gender gaprefers to the regular pattern by which women are more likely to support Democratic candidates. Women tend to be much less conservative than men and are more likely to support spending on social services and to oppose higher levels of military spending9
7871836729political participationall the activities used by citizens to influence the selection of political leaders or the policies they pursue. The most common, but not the only, means of political participation in a democracy is voting.10
7871836730protesta form of of political participation designed to achieve policy change through dramatic and unconventional tactics.11
7871836732nominationthe act of officially naming a candidate12
7871836733campaign strategythe master game plan candidates lay out to guide their electoral campaign13
7871836743Selective PerceptionThe phenomenon that people often pay the most attention to things they already agree with and interpret them according to their own predispositions.14
7871836747political efficacyThe belief that one's political participation really matters - that one's vote can actually make a difference15
7871836748civic dutyThe belief that in order to support democratic government, a citizen should always vote16
7871836749voter registrationa system adopted by the states that requires voters to register well in advance of Election Day. A few states permit election day voting.17
7871836750motor voter actPassed in 1993, this act went into effect for the 1996 election. It requires states to permit people to register to vote at the same time they apply for their driver's license.18
7871836752policy votingelectoral choices that are made on the basis of the voters' policy preferences and on the basis of where the candidates stand on policy issues19
7871836753electoral collegeThe people chosen to cast each state's votes in a presidential election. Each state can cast one electoral vote for each senator and representative it has. The District of Columbia has three electoral votes, even though it cannot elect a representative or Senator.20
7871836754retrospective votingA theory of voting in which voters essentially ask this simple question: "What have you done for me lately?"21
7871836756open primarya primary election in which any registered voter can vote in any party's primary. Voters choose which primary to vote in; they do not have to be members of that party in order to vote.22
7871836757closed primarya type of primary election used to choose candidates who will run in the general election. In a closed primary, only voters registered for the party which is holding the primary may vote.23
7871836758conservativeholding to traditional attitudes and values and cautious about change or innovation, typically in relation to politics or religion.24
7871836759liberalvalue equality and fairness, open to new behavior or opinions and willing to discard traditional values.25
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AP HuG Agriculture Flashcards

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6370670862AgribusinessSystem of food production involving everything from the development of the seeds to the marketing and sale of food products at the market.0
6370670863Cash CropsPlanting large amounts of profitable crops for mass production and sell.1
6370670864Commercial AgricultureAgriculture undertaken primarily to generate products for sale off the farm.2
6370670865Double CroppingPlanting and harvesting a crop on a field more than once a year.3
6370670866GMOsFoods that\have their genes altered in a laboratory for specific purposes, such as disease resistant, increased productivity, or nutrients value4
6370670867Intensive Subsistence FarmingA form of subsistence agriculture in which farmers must expend a relatively large amount of effort to produce the maximum feasible yield from a parcel of land.5
6370670868MonocultureDependence on a single agricultural commodity.6
6370670869MechanizationIn agriculture, the replacement of human labor with technology or machines.7
6370670870Market GardeningThe small scale production of fruits, vegetables, and flowers as cash crops sold directly to local consumers.8
6370670871Primary EconomyAny economic activity pertaining to the collecting, harvesting, and obtaining of raw materials.9
6370670872Plantation AgricultureRaising a large amount of a 'cash crop' for local sale or export.10
6370670873Suitcase FarmersA farm in which no one reside permanently, they go against the grain of traditional farming. In the US migrant workers provide a cheap, abundant labor source11
6370670874Sustainable YieldRate of crop production that can be maintained over time.12
6370670875TranshumanceMovement of animal herd to cooler highland areas in the summer to warmer lowland areas in the winter.13
6370670876Von Thunen ModelTheory that a commercial farmer wull decide which crops to grow and which livestock to raise depending on the proximity to market.14
6370670877Green RevolutionAn outgrowth of the 3rd agricultural revolution, this effort began in the 1940s and developed new strains of hybrid seeds and fertilizers that dramatically increased the crop output possible from each farm.15
6370670878Examples of Primary Economic ActivitiesRaising livestock Mining Quarrying Crude oil extraction Lumbering Wheat growing Cotton16
6370670879Examples of Secondary Economic ActivitiesMilk, Cheese Diamonds Petroleum Furniture Bread, Beer Textiles17
6370670880Examples of Tertiary Economic ActivitiesCorporation Doctors Attorneys Tourism Scientist18
6370670881NomadismDry Areas Same climate as livestock ranching(commercial farms in MDCs) Marginalized land19
6370670882Mixed livestock and grainRaise domesticated animals and growing feed20
6370670883Commercial Grain FarmingWheat belt Bread-basket US Corn belt21
6370670884Mediterranean AgricultureAn agricultural system practiced in the Mediterranean-style climates of Western Europe, California, and portions of Chile and Australia, in which diverse specialty crops such as grapes, avocados,22
6370670885Double croppingHarvesting twice in one year Employ crop rotation23
6370670886Intertillagethe clearing of rows in the field through the use of hoes, rakes, & other manual equipment24
6370670887Truck FarmsFarm where farmers produce fruits for the market Use mechanization to produce large quantities of fruits and veggies25
6370670888Staple Grainswheat, barley, rye, maize, or rice; potatoes, yams, taro, arrowroot, or cassava26
6370670889Adaptive Strategiesthe unique way in which each culture uses its particular physical environment; those aspects of culture that serve to provide the necessities of life- food, clothing, shelter, and defense.27
6370670890Agrarianrelating to land; relating to the management or farming of land28
6370670891Agricultural IndustrializationThe use of machinery in agriculture, like tractors etc. - makes it easier for farmers to have higher crop yields.29
6370670892Agricultural LandscapeThe land that we farm on and what we choose to put were on our fields.30
6370670893Agricultural Location ModelAn attempt to explain the pattern of agricultural land use in terms of accessibility, costs, distance, and prices.31
6370670894AquacultureRaising marine and freshwater fish in ponds and underwater cages32
6370670895Biorevolutionthe genetic engineering of plants and animals with the potential to exceed the productivity of the Green Revolution33
6370670896BiotechnologyA form of technology that uses living organisms, usually genes, to modify products, to make or modify plants and animals, or to develop other microorganisms for specific purposes.34
6370670897Chemical Farmingincreased use of fertilizers with nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium35
6370670898Collective Farma farm or group of farms run by the government, as in a communist state36
6370670899Cultivation RegionsRegions were there is agricultural activity. Know these specifically! (ie. Southwestern US is cattle ranching, Mediterranean is crop trees).37
6370670900Dairy Farmsspecialized in dairy products, N. America, Europe, NOT Africa, South America, Asia38
6370670901Debt-For-Nature SwapWhen agencies such as the World Bank make a deal with third world countries that they will cancel their debt if the country will set aside a certain amount of their natural resources.39
6370670902DesertificationDegradation of land, especially in semiarid areas, primarily because of human actions like excessive crop planting, animal grazing, and tree cutting.40
6370670903Dispersed (Rural Settlement Type)characteristics of the contemporary North American rural landscape, by farmers living on individual farms isolated from neighbors rather than alongside other farmers.41
6370670904Extensive Commercial AgricultureA crop or livestock system in which land quality or extent is more important than capital or labor inputs in determining output42
6370670905Extractive Industryprimary activities involving the mining and quarrying of nonrenewable metallic and nonmetallic mineral resources43
6370670906Farm Crisisfarmers too productive, causing surplus of crops and lowering prices and producing less revenue for farmers44
6370670907Feedlota plot of land on which livestock are fattened for market45
6370670908Food ChainA series of steps in which organisms transfer energy by eating and being eaten46
6370670909Food DesertAn area in a developed country where healthy food is difficult to obtain47
6370670910Food ManufacturingThe processes that are used to convert raw materials into finished food products48
6370670911Globalized Agriculturesystem of food production increasingly dependent upon an economy and set of regulatory practices that are global in scope and organization49
6370670912Growing SeasonThe season in which crops grow best. Growing season can vary by location, societies rely on their growing season to which crops they can or can't grow at their latitude.50
6370670913Hunting and Gatheringthe killing of wild animals and fish as well as the gathering of fruits, roots, nuts, and other plants for sustenance51
6370670914Intensive Commercial AgricultureIntensive farming in a commercial economy, crops have high yields and market value52
6370670915Livestock Ranchingan extensive commercial agricultural activity that involves the raising of livestock over vast geographic spaces typically located in semi-arid climates like the American West53
6370670916Long-Lot Survey SystemA distinct regional approach to land surveying whereby land is divided into narrow parcels stretching back from rivers, roads, or canals54
6370670917Luxury CropsNon-subsistence crops such as tea, cacao, coffee, and tobacco55
6370670918Metes and Bounds Systema system of land surveying east of the Appalachian Mountains. The system relies on descriptions of land ownership and natural features such as streams or trees.56
6370670919PastoralismA type of agricultural activity based on nomadic animal husbandry or the raising of livestock to provide food, clothing, and shelter.57
6370670920Nucleated( Rural Settlement System)clustered settlement is one of the main types of settlement pattern. It is one of the terms used by geographers and landscape historians to classify settlements58
6370670921Organic AgricultureApproach to farming and ranching that avoids the use of herbicides, pesticides, growth hormones, and other similar synthetic inputs.59
6370670922PesticidesChemicals used on plants that do not harm the plants, but kill pests and have negative repercussions on other species who ingest the chemicals.60
6370670923Planned Economya system of production of goods and services, usually consumed or distributed by a governmental agency, in quantities, at prices, and in locations determined by governmental program61
6370670924Plant Domesticationgenetic modification of a plant such that its reproductive success depends on human intervention62
6370670925Primogenitureright of inheritance belongs exclusively to the eldest son right of inheritance belongs exclusively to the eldest son63
6370670926Quaternary Economic Activitiesservice sector industries concerned with the collection, processing, and manipulation of information and capital. Examples include finance, administration, insurance, and legal services.64
6370670927Quinary Economic Activitiesservice sector industries that require a high level of specialized knowledge or technical skill. Examples include scientific research and high-level management.65
6370670928Rectangular Survey SystemA system used to divide public domain lands in the United States in which land is divided into 6-mile square townships and subdivided into sections, portions of sections, or irregular lots.66
6370670929Root Cropscrop that is reproduced by cultivating the roots of or the cuttings from the plants67
6370670930Carl SauerDefined the concept of cultural landscape as the fundamental unit of geographical analysis.68
63706709312nd Agriculture RevolutionInnovations led to agricultural surpluses, food surpluses, let people move from farms to factories, growth of cities increased.69
6370670932Secondary Economic Activityeconomic activity involving the processing of raw materials and their transformation into finished industrial products; the manufacturing sector70
6370670933Seed Cropscrop that is reproduced by cultivating the seeds of the plants. crop that is reproduced by cultivating the seeds of the plants.71
6370670934SpecializationThe concentration of the productive efforts of individuals and firms on a limited number of activities72
6370670935Slash and Burn Agriculturea farming technique in which trees are cut down and burned to clear and fertilize the land73
6370670936SwiddenLand that is prepared for agriculture by using the slash and burn method.74
6370670937Tertiary Economic Activityeconomic activity associated with the provision of services--such transportation, banking, retailing, education, and routine office-based jobs.75
6370670938Township and Range SystemA rectangular land division scheme designed by Thomas Jefferson to disperse settlers evenly across farmlands of the U.S. interior.76
6370670939Third Agriculture Revolution'green revolution' rapid diffusion of new ag techniques between 1970's and 1980's, especially new high-yield seeds and fertilizers77
6370670940Village Form (Rural Settlement Type)a number of families live in close proximity to each other, with fields surrounding the collection of houses and farm buildings78
6370670941Soil Erosionthe wearing away and removal of rock and soil particles from exposed surfaces by agents such as moving water, wind, or ice79
6780690554Agricultural Production in the USTruck and fruit farming exists in the relatively mild climates if central California and the southeast coast. Range livestock dominates agricultural production in the western region of the country. The Midwest states including Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, Nebraska, and parts of Kansas and South Dakota produce feed grains and livestock and are collectively known as "The Corn Belt." Wheat and small grains are common in the states and parts of states in the Midwest that do not concentrate in corn production.80
6780728108AgricultureThe growing of crops or tending of livestock for subsistence of producers or for sale or exchange. most economically significant primary economic activity. In both developed and developing economies, share of total labor force employed in agriculture is declining but the share of labor force in developing regions much higher that in developed regions.81
6780759024BiomassAlternate energy source which involves converting a variety of biological materials such as crops, vegetation, and human & animal waste into fuel for automobiles and engines.82
6780823833Capital-intensive vs Labor-intensive AgricultureCapital-intensive methods use mechanical goods including machinery, tools, vehicles, and facilities to produce large amounts of agricultural goods, a process requiring very little human labor. Labor-intensive goods, use human hands in large abundance to produce a given amount of output. Distinction between the two is not always a result of level of the technological innovation. Some agricultural products require substantial labor inputs, such as strawberries, which must be handpicked.83
6781131006Commercial Livestock ProductionTwo major forms: livestock ranching & dairying. Livestock ranching is widespread throughout much of Australia, western North America, South America, southern Africa, and western Asia. Dairying is especially prevalent in northern Europe and the northern US84
6781202858DeforestationIn rapidly growing developing countries, the need for fuel-wood is increasing quite dramatically leading to deforestation. Significant portions of tropical forests being converted to agricultural production. In Central and South America millions of hectares converted to pasture on an annual basis, primarily for beef cattle destined for American meat market.85
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