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AP Biology - Ecology Review Flashcards

6318964585	ecology	study of the distribution and abundance of organisms and their interactions with other organisms and with their physical environment	0
6318964586	population	group of individuals of the same species living in the same area	1
6318964587	community	group of populations of different species living in the same area	2
6318964588	ecosystem	interrelationships between organisms in a community and their physical environment	3
6318964589	biosphere	composed of all the regions of the earth that contain living things (hydrosphere, geosphere, and atmosphere)	4
6318964590	habitat	type of place where an organism usually lives; descriptions typically include the organisms and the physical and chemical characteristics of the environment	5
6318964591	niche	role and all biotic and abiotic resources in the environment used by an organism	6
6318964592	biotic	living	7
6318964593	abiotic	nonliving	8
6318964594	climate	long-term prevailing weather conditions in a given area; major components include temperature, precipitation, sunlight, and wind	9
6318964595	macroclimate	global, regional, or local climateexample: changing angle of earth with respect to the sun, bodies of water, mountains that exert long-term effects	10
6318964596	microclimate	fine-scale variations, like sunlight and temperature under a log	11
6318964597	biome	large region of the earth whose distribution depends on the amount of precipitation and temperature in an area; characterized by dominant vegetation and animal life	12
6318964599	tropical rainforest	abundant rainfall, stable temperature, high humiditymost biodiversity of any biome	13
6318964600	desert	little to no rainfall, greatly varying temperatures, no humidityplants are drought-resistant and animals are typically active only at night	14
6318964601	temperate grasslands	covers huge areas in temperate and tropical regions of the worldlow total annual rainfall, uneven seasonal rainfall, occasional firesgrazing and burrowing mammals; soil is rich in nutrients and is great for agriculture	15
6318964602	temperate deciduous forest	trees drop their leaves in wintervertical stratification of plants and animalssoil is rich due to decomposition	16
6318964603	conifer forest/taiga	dominated by conifer forestsfresh water lakes and pondsvery cold winters, heavy snowfalllargest terrestrial biomelarge mammalsflying insects and birds in summer	17
6318964604	tundra	characterized by permafrost"frozen desert"gently rolling plains with many lakes, ponds, and bogsinsects are abundantlarge to medium mammals	18
6318964605	savanna	grasses and some treesdominant herbivores include insectsfire is a dominant abiotic factorplant growth increases during rainy season, but low otherwise	19
6318964606	chaparral	dominated by dense, spiny, evergreen shrubscoastal areas with mild rainy winters and long, hot, dry summersplants are adapted to fires	20
6318964607	aquatic biomes include...	freshwater, estuaries, marine	21
6318964608	primary way to distinguish aquatic biomes	salinity	22
6318964609	vertical stratification in aquatic biomes	photic zone: enough light for photosynthesisaphotic zone: very little lightbenthic zone: bottom of biome with sand, detritus, and inorganic matter	23
6318964610	thermocline	narrow layers of fast temperature change that separate a warm upper layer of water and cold deeper waters	24
6318964613	oligotrophic lakes	deep lakes that are nutrient-poor, oxygen-rich, and contain sparse phytoplankton	25
6318964614	eutrophic lakes	shallower, higher-nutrient content, lower oxygen content, high concentration of phytoplankton	26
6318964618	population ecology	study of the growth, abundance, and distribution of populations	27
6318964619	population growth is described by...	biotic potential, carrying capacity, and limiting factors	28
6318964620	population size	symbolically represented by Nit is the total number of individuals in the population	29
6318964621	population density	total number of individuals per area or volume occupied	30
6318964622	population dispersion	describes how individuals in a population are distributed	31
6318964623	clumped dispersion	most common pattern, like humans in cities or schools of fish	32
6318964624	uniform dispersion	like trees in an orchard, or plants with toxins	33
6318964625	random dispersion	like trees in a forest; occurs because of special attractions or repulsions	34
6318964626	age structure	describes the abundance of individuals of each age	35
6318964627	survivorship curves	describe how mortality of individuals in a species varies during their lifetimes	36
6318964628	type I survivorship curve	describe a species in which most individuals survive to middle age; after that age, mortality is high.example: humans	37
6318964629	type II survivorship curve	describe organisms in which the length of survivorship is random, that is, the likelihood of death is the same at any ageexample: rodents, invertebrates	38
6318964630	type III survivorship curve	describe species in which most individuals die young, with only a relative few surviving to reproductive age and beyondexample: oysters, species with free-swimming larvae	39
6318964631	biotic potential	maximum growth rate of a population under ideal conditions with unlimited resources and without any growth restrictions	40
6318964632	factors that contribute to biotic potential	age at reproductive maturity, clutch size, frequency of reproduction, reproductive lifetime, survivorship of offspring to reproductive maturity	41
6318964633	carrying capacity	maximum number of individuals of a population that can be sustained by a particular habitat	42
6318964634	limiting factors	elements that prevent a population from attaining its biotic potential	43
6318964635	types of limiting factors	density-dependent factors and density-independent factors	44
6318964636	density-dependent factors	limiting effect becomes more intense as the population density increasesexamples: parasites and disease, competition, toxic effect of waste products, predation, stress	45
6318964637	density-independent factors	occur independently of the density of a populationexamples: natural disasters and climate extremes	46
6318964638	r-strategist (or r-selected species)	rapid, exponential growthquickly invade a habitat, quickly reproduce, then dieoffspring are small, quickly maturing, and require little to no parental care	47
6318964639	k-strategist (or k-selected species)	slower, logistic growthsize of mature population remains relatively constantsmall number of large offspringextensive parental carereproduction repeats throughout lifetime	48
6318964640	exponential growth	occurs when reproductive rate is greater than zero; forms a J-shaped curve on a graph	49
6318964641	logistic growth	occurs when limiting factors restrict the size of a population to the carrying capacity of the habitat; forms an S-shaped curve on a graph	50
6318964642	life history	describes an organism's strategy for maximum fitness	51
6318964643	reproductive success	measure of fitness - how well an organism survives and reproduces	52
6318964644	reproductive success depends on four variables	age of reproductive maturityfrequency of reproductionnumber of offspring per reproductive eventhow long the organism lives	53
6318964645	community ecology	concerned with the interaction of different populations	54
6318964646	interspecific competition	competition between two different species via...- competitive exclusion principle (Gause's principle)- resource partitioning- realized niche- character displacement (niche shift)	55
6318964647	Competitive Exclusion (Gause's principle)	when two species compete for exactly the same resources, or occupy the same niche, one is likely to be more successful	56
6318964648	resource partitioning	some species coexist in spite of apparent competition for the same resources. they actually occupy slightly different niches.	57
6318964649	fundamental niche	niche that an organism occupies in the absence of competition	58
6318964650	realized niche	when competitors are present, one or both species may be able to coexist by occupying realized niches. here, any niche overlap is absent. they do not compete for the same resources.	59
6318964651	character displacement	niche shiftcertain characteristics may enable individuals to obtain resources in their partitions more successfully. this reduces competition and leads to a divergence of features.	60
6318964652	predation	predator totally or partly consumes a plant or other animal	61
6318964653	true predator	kills and eats other animals	62
6318964654	parasite	spends most or all of its live living on or in a host; obtains nourishment by feeding on host tissues	63
6318964655	parasitoid	insect that lays eggs on a host, usually an insect or spider, and after hatching the larvae consume the host	64
6318964656	herbivore	animal that eats plants; some act like predators and totally consume the organism whereas others may only eat a part of the plant	65
6318964657	symbiosis	two species that live together in close contact during a portion or all of their lives	66
6318964658	types of symbiotic relationships	mutualismcommensalismparasitism	67
6318964659	mutualism	both species benefit	68
6318964660	commensalism	one species benefits while the second is neither helped nor harmed	69
6318964661	parasitism	parasite benefits while the host is harmed	70
6318964662	coevolution	evolution of one species in response to new adaptations that appear in another species - evolutionary arms race	71
6318964663	secondary compounds	toxic chemicals produced in plants that discourage would-be herbivores	72
6318964664	cryptic coloration	camouflage; any color, pattern, shape, or behavior that enables an animal to blend in with its surroundings	73
6318964665	aposematic coloration	warning coloration; conspicuous pattern or coloration of animals that warns predators that they sting, bite, taste bad, or are otherwise to be avoided	74
6318964666	mimicry	two or more species resemble one another in appearance	75
6318964667	mullerian mimicry	several animals, all with some special defense mechanism, share the same or similar coloration	76
6318964668	batesian mimicry	an animal without any special defense mechanism mimics the coloration of an animal that does possess a defense	77
6318964669	ecological succession	change in the composition of species over time; one community is gradually and predictably replaced by another community	78
6318964670	climax community	final successional stage of constant species composition; persists relatively unchanged until destroyed by a catastrophic event, like fire	79
6318964671	in succession, resident species may alter...	substrate texture, soil pH, soil water potential, light, and crowding	80
6318964672	pioneer species	species that are the first to colonize a newly exposed habitat; work to break down rock into smaller rock, then into sand, and finally into soil as succession progresses	81
6318964673	primary succession	occurs where no soil was previously present; begins on rock. pioneer species and other plants break down rock into pebbles, then sand, then soil. as organisms die and decompose, it nourishes the soil allowing for more and larger organisms to grow or live in that area	82
6318964674	secondary succession	occurs as primary succession, except soil is already present	83
6318964675	food chain	linear flow chart of who eats whomexample: grass >>> zebra >>> lion >>> vulture	84
6318964676	food web	expanded, more complete version of a food chain that shows all major plants in the ecosystem, various animals that eat them, and the animals that eat the animals	85
6318964677	autotrophs	obtain energy from light or inorganic material	86
6318964678	heterotrophs	consumer other organisms for organic material and/or a source of energy	87
6318964679	ecological pyramids	show relationships between trophic levels	88
6318964680	trophic level	an organism's place in a food chain or food web	89
6318964681	primary producers	autotrophs that perform photosynthesis	90
6318964682	primary consumers	herbivores, heterotrophs that eat primary producers	91
6318964683	secondary consumers	carnivores/omnivores, heterotrophs that eat primary consumers	92
6318964684	tertiary consumers	carnivores/omnivores, heterotrophs that eat secondary consumers	93
6318964685	quaternary consumers	carnivores/omnivores, heterotrophs that eat tertiary consumers	94
6318964686	detritivores	heterotrophs that obtain their energy by consuming dead plants and animals (detritus)	95
6318964687	why will you typically not see more than five levels in a food chain, pyramid, or web?	only 10% of the energy at one trophic level is available for the next trophic level. 90% of the energy is used, stored, or lost. there's not enough energy in any ecosystem to support more than 5 levels. this is called ecological efficiency.	96
6318964688	primary productivity	amount of organic matter produced through photosynthetic activity per unit of time	97
6318964689	dominant species	most abundant species or species that contributes the greatest biomass to a community	98
6318964690	keystone species	one that has a strong influence on the health of a community or ecosystem; removal of a keystone species results in dramatic changes in the makeup of species that comprise other trophic levels	99
6318964691	invasive species	introduced species that proliferates and displaces native species because it is a better competitor or because its natural predators or pathogens are absent	100
6318964692	bottom-up model of trophic interactions	describes how changes in the structure of trophic levels are regulated by changes in the bottom level (plants)	101
6318964693	top-down model of trophic interactions	changes in the structure of trophic levels are regulated by changes in the top trophic level	102
6318964694	biodiversity	function of the number of species, niches, and trophic levels in the ecosystem and the complexity of its food web	103
6318964695	factors that influence biodiversity	climate, latitude, habitat size and diversity, and elevation	104
6318964696	biogeochemical cycles	describe the flow of essential elements from the environment to living things and back; elements are stored in reservoirs and assimilated into organisms as well as released back into the environment	105
6318964697	hydrologic cycle - reservoirs	oceans, air (water vapor), ground water, glaciers	106
6318964698	hydrologic cycle - assimilation	plants absorb water from soil, animals drink water or eat other organisms	107
6318964699	hydrologic cycle - release	plants transpire, animals and plants decompose	108
6318964700	carbon cycle - reservoirs	atmosphere, bodies of water, fossil fuels, peat, durable organic material	109
6318964701	carbon cycle - assimilation	photosynthesis, consumption	110
6318964702	carbon cycle - release	respiration, decomposition, burning	111
6318964703	nitrogen cycle - reservoirs	atmosphere, soil	112
6318964704	nitrogen cycle - assimilation	absorption, consumption, nitrogen fixation, nitrification	113
6318964705	nitrogen cycle - release	denitrifying bacteria convert ammonia into atmospheric nitrogen, detritivorous bacteria convert organic compounds into ammonia, and animals excrete ammonia, urea, or uric acid	114
6318964706	phosphorus cycle - reservoirs	rock and ocean sediments	115
6318964707	phosphorus cycle - assimilation	plants absorb from soils, animals eat plants or other animals	116
6318964708	phosphorus cycle - release	decomposition, excretion	117
6318964709	humans damage the biosphere by...	exponential population growthhabitat destructionpollution	118
6318964710	most destructive consequences of human activity include...	global climate change, deforestation, acid rain, reduction in species diversity, ozone depletion, desertification, and pollution	119
6318964711	global climate change	Burning of fossil fuels releases greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. These greenhouse gases trap infrared radiation, raising the temperature of the earth's atmosphere and resulting in large scale climate change.	120
6318964712	acid rain	burning of fossil fuels like coal and other industrial processes release pollutants in the air, which react with water vapor to produce sulfuric acid and nitric acid, which rains down on us	121
6318964713	desertification	overgrazing of grasslands that border deserts transform those grasslands into deserts; agricultural output decreases and habitats available to native species are lost	122
6318964714	deforestation	clear-cutting of forests causes erosion, flooding, and changes in weather patterns; occurs most often in the tropical rainforest, where most of our carbon fixation occurs	123

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AP Psychology - Development Psychology Flashcards

Advanced Placement Psychology

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5844386890	Developmental Psychology	a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span.	0
5844386891	Zygote	the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo.	1
5844386892	Embryo	the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month.	2
5844386893	Fetus	the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth.	3
5844386894	Teratogens	agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm.	4
5844386895	Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)	physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, symptoms include noticeable facial misproportions.	5
5844386896	Habituation	decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.	6
5844386897	Maturation	biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience.	7
5844386898	Cognition	all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.	8
5844386899	Schema	a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.	9
5844386900	Assimilation	interpreting our new experience in terms of our existing schemas.	10
5844386901	Accommodation	Development - adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information.	11
5844386902	Sensorimotor Stage	in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities.	12
5844386903	Object Permanence	the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived.	13
5844386904	Preoperational Stage	in Piaget's theory, the stage (from 2 to about 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic.	14
5844386905	Conservation	the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects.	15
5844386906	Egocentrism	in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view.	16
5844386907	Theory of Mind	people's ideas about their own and others' mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.	17
5844386908	Concrete Operational Stage	in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events.	18
5844386909	Formal Operational Stage	in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts.	19
5844386910	Autism	a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by deficient communication, social interaction, and understanding of others' states of mind.	20
5844386911	Stranger Anxiety	the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age.	21
5844386912	Attachment	an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation.	22
5844386913	Critical Period	an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development.	23
5844386914	Imprinting	the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life.	24
5844386915	Temperament	a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity.	25
5844386916	Basic Trust	according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers.	26
5844386917	Self-Concept	all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"	27
5844386918	Gender	in psychology, the biologically and socially influenced characteristics by which people define male and female.	28
5844386919	Aggression	physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone.	29
5844386920	X Chromosome	the sex chromosome found in both men and women. Females have two of these; males have one. One chromosome from each parent produces a female child.	30
5844386921	Y Chromosome	the sex chromosome found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child.	31
5844386922	Testosterone	the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional levels in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty.	32
5844386923	Role	a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave.	33
5844386924	Gender Role	a set of expected behaviors for males or for females.	34
5844386925	Gender Identity	our sense of being male or female.	35
5844386926	Gender Typing	the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role.	36
5844386927	Social Learning Theory	the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished.	37
5844386928	Adolescence	the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence.	38
5844386929	Puberty	the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing.	39
5844386930	Primary Sex Characteristics	the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible.	40
5844386931	Secondary Sex Characteristics	nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair.	41
5844386932	Menarche	the first menstrual period.	42
5844386933	Identity	our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles.	43
5844386934	Social Identity	the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships.	44
5844386935	Intimacy	in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood.	45
5844386936	Emerging Adulthood	for some people in modern cultures, a period from the late teens to mid-twenties, bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and full independence and responsible adulthood.	46
5844386937	Menopause	the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines.	47
5844386938	Cross-Sectional Study	a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another.	48
5844386939	Longitudinal Study	research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period.	49
5844386940	Crystallized Intelligence	our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age.	50
5844386941	Fluid Intelligence	our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood.	51
5844386942	Social Clock	the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement.	52

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AP Biology Mitosis and Meiosis Flashcards

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5473863138	two	How many daughter cells are produced in mitosis?	0
5473863139	genome	-consists of all the DNA in a cell -holds specific genetic traits	1
5473863140	chromosomes	-packages in a cell which contain DNA molecules -humans have 46 -each species has a specific number	2
5473863141	chromatin	-makes up chromosomes -complex of DNA and protein	3
5473863142	somatic cells	-have two sets of chromosomes -go through mitosis -nonreproductive	4
5473863143	gametes	-have half as many chromosomes as somatic cells -go through meiosis -reproductive cells	5
5473863144	sister chromatids	-each duplicated chromosome has two -separate during cell division	6
5473863145	centromere	-narrow waist of the duplicated chromosome -where the two chromatids are most closely attached	7
5473863146	cytokinesis	-division of the cytoplasm	8
5473863147	interphase	-where 90% of a cell's life is spent -cell growing and chromosomes coping -3 subphases: -G1 -Synthesis -G2 -cell is growing	9
5473863148	G2	In which subphase of interphase are the chromosomes duplicated?	10
5473863149	prophase	-first stage of mitosis -spindle fibers start to forms -nucleus thins -sister chromatids combine to make chromosomes	11
5473863150	prometaphase	-second stage of mitosis -the nuclear envelope fragments -the spindle microtubules attach to the kinetochores of the chromosomes	12
5473863151	metaphase	-third phase of mitosis -chromosomes line up in the center of the cell -spindle fibers attach to the kinetochores of each sister chromatid	13
5473863152	anaphase	-fourth phase of mitosis -sister chromatids separate and move toward opposite ends of the cell	14
5473863153	telophase	-fifth and final stage of mitosis -genetically identical daughter nuclei form at opposite ends of the cell -nonkinetochore microtubules from opposite poles overlap and push each other elongating the cell	15
5473863154	mitotic spindle	-apparatus of microtubules that control chromosome movement during mitosis	16
5473863155	centrosome	-microtubule organizing center -replicates, each set goes to opposite ends -spindle fibers grow out from them	17
5473863157	kinetochores	-protein complexes that assemble on sections of DNA at centromeres -where spindle fibers and microtubules attach	18
5473863158	metaphase plate	-midway point between the spindles two poles -where chromosomes line up in metaphase	19
5473863159	cleavage furrow	-formed during late telophase and cytokinesis	20
5473863160	cell plate	forms in plant cells during cytokinesis	21
5473863161	binary fission	-prokaryotic method of reproduction and cell division -chromosome replicates and the two daughter chromosomes actively more apart	22
5473863162	cell cycle control system	-directs sequential event of the cell cycle -regulated by internal and external force -receives signals from the cytoplasm	23
5473863163	checkpoints	-where the cell cycle stops until a go ahead signal is received -G1 is the most important for many cells	24
5473863164	G0	-the nondividing stage of the cell if it does not pass the G1 checkpoint	25
5473863165	growth factors	proteins released by certain cells that stimulate other cells to divide	26
5473863166	density dependent inhibition	crowded cells stop dividing	27
5473863168	cancer cells	-cells that exhibit neither density dependent inhibition nor anchorage dependence -escape the usual control system -do not need growth factors to divide	28
5473863170	tumors	-masses of abnormal cells within otherwise normal tissue -formed by cancer cells	29
5473863171	benign tumor	-lump of abnormal cells remaining only at the original site of the cancer	30
5473863172	malignant tumor	invade surrounding tissue	31
5473863173	metastasize	exporting cancer cells to other parts of the body, where they may form secondary tumors	32
5473863175	46	What is the chromosome number for humans?	33
5473863177	homologous chromosomes	-2 chromosomes in each pair -same length and shape -carry genes controlling the same inherited characters	34
5473863179	diploid cell	-has two sets of chromosomes -human # is 46 -2n	35
5473863180	haploid	-gamete -contains a single set of chromosomes -n	36
5473863181	fertilization	the union of gametes (sperm and egg)	37
5473863182	zygote	-fertilized egg -one set of chromosomes from each parent -diploid cell produces somatic cells by mitosis	38
5473863187	prophase I	-occupies more than 90% of the time required for meiosis -chromosomes condense -synapse and crossing over -tetrads and chiasmata	39
5473863188	synapsis	-homologous chromosomes loosely pair up -align gene by gene -get together with homologous pair	40
5473863189	crossing over	nonsister chromatids exchange DNA segments	41
5473863192	metaphase I	homologous pairs line up in the middles of the cell and the spindle fibers attach to them	42
5473863193	anaphase I	-chromosomes move toward each pole -sister chromatids move as one unit toward the pole	43
5473863194	telophase I	-beginning: each half of the cell has a haploid set of chromosomes -each chromosome consists of two sister chromatids	44
5473863195	prophase II	spindle apparatus forms	45
5473863196	metaphase II	-because of crossing over the sister chromatids are no longer genetically identical -kinetochores of sister chromosomes attach to microtubules extending from opposite poles	46
5473863197	anaphase II	-sister chromatids of each chromosome move as two newly individual chromosomes toward opposite poles	47
5473863198	telophase II	-chromosomes arrive at opposite poles -nuclei form and the chromosomes begin decondensing	48
5473863199	independent assortment of chromosomes	-mechanism contributing to genetic variation -homologous pairs of chromosomes orient randomly -metaphase I -each pair of chromosomes sorts maternal and paternal homologs into daughter cells independently of the other pairs -the number of combinations possible when chromosomes assort independently into gametes is 2^n where n is the haploid number	49
5473863200	crossing over	-mechanism contributing to genetic variation -produces recombinant chromosomes -begins in early prophase I -homologous chromosomes pair up gene by gene -homologue portions of two nonsister chromatids trade places -combines DNA from two parents into a single chromosome	50
5473863202	random fertilization	-any sperm can fuse with any ovum -the fusion of two gametes produces a zygote with any of about 70 trillion diploid combinations -each zygote has a unique genetic identity	51

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AP Biology - Immune System Flashcards

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5725282021	Inflammatory Response	Vasodilation, phagocytosis, and increase in body temperature	0
5725282022	Histamines	chemical signals that trigger vasodilation, increasing blood supply to area and cause inflammation.	1
5725282023	Phagocytes	White blood cells that engulf invading pathogens e.g., neutrophils, macrophages	2
5725282024	Complement	chemical signals secreted by blood vessel cells that attract more white blood cells (phagocytes) to the area	3
5725282025	Specific immunity	B and T cells; humoral and cell-mediated response	4
5725282026	Lymphocyte	White blood cell	5
5725282027	B Cells	Humoral response by producing antibodies; activated by T cells or free antigens	6
5725282028	T Cells	Cell-mediated response, stimulating by APCs (antigen presenting cells)	7
5725282029	Helper T Cell	Set off an alarm to the immune system that pathogens have broken through the body's line of defense; binds to class II MHC	8
5725282030	Cytotoxic T Cell	Kills body cells that have been infected with pathogens; stimulated by antigens and helper T-cells	9
5725282031	Macrophages	APC that engulfs large numbers of pathogens; presents antigen to activate T cells	10
5725282034	MHC I	molecules found on every body cell that presents antigen; signals cytotoxic T to destroy	11
5725282035	MHC II	molecules found on macrophages, B cells, and activated T cells; signal helper T cells	12
5725282036	Memory Cells	Responsible for lifelong immunity by storing copy B and T cells to more quickly fight secondary infection	13
5725282037	Antibody	Y-shaped protein with variable antigen bind region; slows pathogens to facilitate destruction	14
5725282038	Antigen	Identifying marker on the outside of a pathogen	15
5725282039	Passive Immunity	Temporary immunity where antibodies are transferred from another animal ex: mother transfers some of her antibodies to her nursing child	16
5725282041	Autoimmune disease	A mistake in the immune system where the body does not properly distinguish self from nonself	17
5725282042	Allergy	Hypersensitive immune response to certain substances that causes that release of histamine	18
5725282043	Dendritic Cells	During primary immune responses, the principle antigen-presenting cells in the lymph nodes	19
5725282044	Innate Immunity	General, non-specific protection to the body, including the skin (barrier), gastric acid, phagocytes, and lysozyme.	20
5725282045	Effector Cell	Short-lived lymphocyte such as a B cell or cytotoxic T lymphocyte that can take immediate action against an antigen.	21
5725282046	Natural Killer Cells	A type of white blood cell that can kill tumor cells and virus-infected cells; an important component of innate immunity.	22
5725282048	Humoral Response	The branch of acquired immunity that involves the activation of B cells and that leads to the production of antibodies, which defend against bacteria and viruses in body fluids.	23
5725282049	Cell-mediated Response	The branch of acquired immunity that involves the activation of cytotoxic T cells, which defend against infected cells.	24
5725282050	Neutrophils	The most abundant type of white blood cell. Phagocytic and tend to self-destruct as they destroy foreign invaders, limiting their lifespan to a few days. (aka: Pus)	25

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AP Biology: Cell Communication Flashcards

Cell Communication
Vocabulary: signal transduction pathway, quorum sensing, hormones, protein kinase, protein phosphatase, G proteins, cyclic AMP, first messengers, second messengers, signal amplification, apoptosis, paracrine signaling, synaptic signaling, hormonal signaling
1. Know the three stages of Cell Signaling:
a. Reception - receptors in the plasma membrane, intracellular receptors
b. Transduction - signal transduction pathways, phosphorylation and dephosporylation, second messengers
c. Response - nuclear and cytoplasmic responses; protein synthesis, ion channels, cell shape
2. Describe the relationship between signal molecules and cell surface receptors, and give examples of each.
3. Describe G-protein-linked receptors and receptor tyrosine kinases, and explain the role of each in receiving chemical signals and initiating signal transduction pathways.
4. Describe a signal transduction pathway and explain how this multi-step process can amplify the signal and lead to a cellular response.
5. Understand that different kinds of cells have different collections of proteins (p.221) and how this affects the response of a particular cell to a specific signaling molecule.
6. Define apoptosis and describe its importance and function(s) in an organism.

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5930841168	amplification	The strengthening of stimulus energy during transduction.	0
5930841169	apoptosis	A program of controlled cell suicide, which is brought about by signals that trigger the activation of a cascade of suicide proteins in the cell destined to die.	1
5930841170	cytoplasm	The contents of the cell, exclusive of the nucleus and bounded by the plasma membrane.	2
5930841171	epinephrine	water soluble ligand molecule; A catecholamine that, when secreted by the adrenal medulla, mediates "fight-or-flight" responses to short-term stresses; also released by some neurons as a neurotransmitter; also known as adrenaline.	3
5930841172	G protein	A GTP-binding protein that relays signals from a plasma membrane signal receptor, known as a G protein-coupled receptor, to other signal transduction proteins inside the cell.	4
5930841173	gap junction	A type of intercellular junction in animals that allows the passage of materials between cells.	5
5930841174	glycogen	An extensively branched glucose storage polysaccharide found in the liver and muscle of animals; the animal equivalent of starch.	6
5930841175	ligand	A molecule that binds specifically to another molecule; often first step in cell communication. Water soluble ligands typically do not enter cell. Lipid soluble ligands (such as steroids) do enter the cell.	7
5930841176	ligand-gated ion channel	A protein pore in cellular membranes that opens or closes in response to A signaling chemical (its ligand), allowing or blocking the flow of specific ions.	8
5930841177	local regulator	A secreted molecule that influences cells near where it is secreted. Used in paracrine and synaptic signaling.	9
5930841178	protein kinase	An enzyme that transfers phosphate groups from ATP to a protein, thus phosphorylating the protein.	10
5930841179	protein phosphatase	An enzyme that removes phosphate groups from (dephosphorylates) proteins, often functioning to reverse the effect of a protein kinase.	11
5930841180	receptor tyrosine kinase	A receptor protein in the plasma membrane, the cytoplasmic (intracellular) part of which can catalyze the transfer of a phosphate group from ATP to a tyrosine on another protein. Receptor tyrosine kinases often respond to the binding of a signaling molecule by dimerizing and then phosphorylating a tyrosine on the cytoplasmic portion of the other receptor in the dimer. The phosphorylated tyrosines on the receptors then activate other signal transduction proteins within the cell.	12
5930841181	scaffolding protein	A type of large relay protein to which several other relay proteins are simultaneously attached, increasing the efficiency of signal transduction.	13
5930841182	second messenger	A small, nonprotein, water-soluble molecule or ion, such as a calcium ion (Ca2+) or cyclic AMP, that relays a signal to a cell's interior in response to a signaling molecule bound by a signal receptor protein.	14
5930841183	signal transduction	The linkage of a mechanical, chemical, or electromagnetic stimulus to a specific cellular response.	15
5930841184	signal transduction pathway	A series of steps linking a mechanical or chemical stimulus to a specific cellular response. There are four types that we studied: g-protein linked reception; hormonal reception; receptor tyrosine kinase reception; pathways using second messengers (cAMP; calcium ions).	16
5930841185	testosterone	A steroid hormone required for development of the male reproductive system, spermatogenesis, and male secondary sex characteristics; the major androgen in mammals. Pathway illustrates the mechanism for all steroid hormones.	17
5930841186	transcription factor	A regulatory protein that binds to DNA and affects transcription of specific genes. The hormone-receptor complex becomes a transcription factor in the steroid transduction pathway.	18
5930841187	three stages of cell communication	reception - receptor responds to binding of ligand molecule; transduction - translation and amplification of message; response - activation of cellular response	19
5930841188	g-linked protein receptor	receives message for g-linked protein signaling pathway. Consists of seven alpha helices that span the plasma membrane. Changes shape when ligand molecule binds.	20
5930841189	signal transduction pathway	The process by which a signal on a cell's surface is converted into a specific cellular response.	21
5930841190	local regulators	These regulators influence cells in the vicinity of them.	22
5930841191	hormones	Circulating chemical signals that are formed in specialized cells, travel in body fluids, and act on specific target cells.	23
5930841192	ligand	A molecule that specifically binds to another molecule, often a larger one.	24
5930841193	protein kinase	The enzyme that transfers phosphate groups from ATP to protein.	25
5930841194	protein phosphatases	Enzymes that can rapidly remove phosphate groups from proteins.	26
5930841195	second messengers	Small, non-protein water soluble molecules or ions that send messages throughout the cells by diffusion.	27
5930841196	reception	The target cell's detection of a signal molecule coming from outside the cell.	28
5930841197	transduction	The binding of the signal molecule changes the receptor protein in some way.	29
5930841198	response	The transduced signal finally triggers a specific cellular response.	30
5930841199	G-protein-linked receptor	A plasma membrane receptor that works with the help of a G-protein.	31
5930841200	receptor tyrosine kinase	A receptor with enzymatic activity that can trigger more than one signal transduction pathway at once, helping the cell regulate and coordinate many aspects of cell growth and reproduction.	32
5930841201	ligand-gated ion channel	Type of membrane receptor that has a region that can act as a "gate" when the receptor changes shape.	33

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AP: 3-El medio ambiente Flashcards

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7879192105	ahorrar (dinero, electricidad, agua)	to save (money, electricity, water; NOT people or animals)	0
7879192106	apagar	to turn off	1
7879192107	aumentar	to increase	2
7879192108	subir	to go up	3
7879192109	bajar	to go down	4
7879192110	reducir	to reduce	5
7879192111	botar	to throw out	6
7879192112	calentar	to heat up	7
7879192113	cazar (a un animal)	to hunt (an animal)	8
7879192114	congelar	to freeze	9
7879192115	conservar	to conserve	10
7879192116	contaminar	to contaminate/pollute	11
7879192117	dañar	to harm; to damage	12
7879192118	deforestar	to deforest	13
7879192119	derretir	to melt	14
7879192120	desaparecer	to disappear	15
7879192121	desarrollar	to develop	16
7879192122	desperdiciar	to waste	17
7879192123	destruir	to destroy	18
7879192124	empeorar	to worse; to get worse	19
7879192125	encender	to turn on	20
7879192126	haber	there is/are	21
7879192127	malgastar	to waste	22
7879192128	mejorar	to get better	23
7879192129	perjudicar	to harm; to damage	24
7879192130	prevenir	to prevent	25
7879192131	producir	to produce	26
7879192132	proteger	to protect	27
7879192133	reciclar	to recycle	28
7879192134	salvar [a]	to save; to rescue [a PERSON or ANIMAL]	29
7879192135	sembrar	to plant	30
7879192136	potable	drinkable	31
7879192137	el agujero	the hole	32
7879192138	el aire	the air	33
7879192139	el árbol	the tree	34
7879192140	la botella	the bottle	35
7879192141	el bosque	the forest	36
7879192142	el calentamiento global	global warming	37
7879192143	la capa de ozono	the ozone layer	38
7879192144	la contaminación	the contamination	39
7879192145	[ser] dañino/a	[to be] harmful	40
7879192146	el efecto invernadero	the greenhouse effect	41
7879192147	la energía	the energy	42
7879192148	la fábrica	the factory	43
7879192149	la falta [de]	the lack [of]	44
7879192150	los glaciares	the glacier	45
7879192151	[ser] grave	to be serious (a situation/illness/problem)	46
7879192152	el humo	the smoke	47
7879192153	el medio ambiente	the environment	48
7879192154	la naturaleza	nature	49
7879192155	el nivel	the level	50
7879192156	lo recursos (naturales)	the (natural) resources	51
7879192157	la selva tropical	the rainforest	52
7879192158	el tráfico	the traffic	53
7879192159	la tecnología	the technology	54
7879192160	la tierra	the soil	55
7879192161	la Tierra	the Earth	56
7879192162	para el (+ año) (para el 2050)	by 2050	57
7879192163	el peligro	the danger	58
7879192164	ser peligroso	to be dangerous	59
7879192165	en peligro de extinción	endangered	60
7879192166	el petróleo	gasoline	61
7879192167	el plástico	plastic	62
7879192168	la polución	pollucion	63
7879192169	[ser] perjudicial	[to be] harmful	64
7879192170	el producto	the product	65
7879192171	el porvenir	the future	66
7879192172	un programa	a program	67
7879192173	la energía solar	solar energy	68
7879192174	la energía eólica	wind energy	69
7879192175	la energía nuclear	nuclear energy	70

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AP Euro: Important People Flashcards

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7403608532	Girolamo Savonarola	(1452-1498) Dominican friar, attacked government of Florence (Lorenzo de' Medici), corruption of Pope Alexander VI, became religious leader of Florence, eventually excommunicated and executed by pope, shows that common people did not share worldly outlook of elite	0
7403608533	Petrarch	(1304-1374) thought he was living at the start of a new era, new age of intellectual achievement, father of humanism	1
7403608534	Lorenzo Valla	(1406-1457) humanist, defended pleasures of senses as the highest good, proved church documents false	2
7403608535	Giorgio Vasari	(1511-1574), art historian	3
7403608536	Donatello	(1386-1466) statues express an appreciation for the variety of human nature, revived classical figure	4
7403608537	Leonardo da Vinci	(1452-1519) contributed to modern concept of artist as an original thinker, saw art from a scientific POV and science from an artistic POV, true "Renaissance man"	5
7403608538	Castiglione	wrote The Courtier, sought to fashion the young gentleman into the courtly ideal, trained in physical, spiritual, intellectual and artistic pursuits	6
7403608539	Laura Cereta	(1469-1499) humanist, had to choose between marriage or a life of study	7
7403608540	Niccolo Machiavelli	(1469-1527), wrote The Prince, showed how a ruler should gain, maintain and increase his power, concludes that humans are inherently selfish, combine qualities of fox and lion, two basic ideas: one permanent social order reflecting God's ideals cannot be established and politics has its own laws and ought to be a science	8
7403608541	Thomas More	(1478-1535), wrote Utopia, presents a revolutionary view of society, believed society's flawed institutions were responsible for corruption and war, necessary to reform social institutions that molded the individual	9
7403608542	Erasmus	(1466-1536), believed education was the means to reform, and that Christianity is Christ's life, humanist	10
7403608543	Martin Luther	(1483-1546), articulated the widespread desire for reform of church and deep yearning for salvation, very conscientious friar, but doubted the value of the monastic life, troubled by sale of indulgences, writes 95 Theses and launches Protestant Reformation	11
7403608544	John Tetzel	friar appointed to sell indulgences	12
7403608545	Ulrich Zwingli	(1484-1531), introduced Protestant Reformation in Switzerland, convinced that Christian life rested on the Scriptures	13
7403608546	John Calvin	(1509-1564) developed Calvinism, believed in predestination-God selects certain people for salvation and condemns the rest, emphasized the absolute sovereignty and omnipotence of God and total weakness of humanity, held Genevans to a high standard of morality, emphasized aggressive, vigorous activism	14
7403608547	John Knox	(1505-1572), dominated movement for reform, persuaded Scottish parliament to enact legislation ending papal authority	15
7403608548	Ignatius Loyola	(1491-1556) founded the Jesuit order, goal to help souls, spread Christian ideals through education	16
7403608549	Prince Henry "the Navigator"	(1394-1460) established a school for the study of geography, sent expeditions down the coast of Africa	17
7403608550	Christopher Columbus	discovered the New World, cruel and ineffective governor of Spain's Caribbean colony, sought a more direct route to the East Indies, laid the foundation for Spanish imperial administration in the Canary Islands	18
7403608551	Ferdinand Magellan	(1480-1521), commissioned by Charles V to find a direct route to the spices of Molucca off the southeast coast of Asia, proved the earth was round and much larger than Columbus had estimated	19
7403608552	Hernando Cortes	(1485-1547), conquered the Aztec Empire, subjugated northern Mexico	20
7403608553	Francisco Pizarro	(1470-1541), conquered the Inca Empire in Peru, established the Spanish viceroyalty in Peru	21
7403608554	Michel de Montaigne	(1533-1592), introduced early modern skepticism, developed the essay to express his thoughts and ideas	22
7403608555	William Shakespeare	(1564-1616), most famous playwright of all time, original characters, great understanding of human psychology, diverse plots, unexcelled gift for language, appreciated classical culture, individualism and humanism	23
7403608556	Peter Paul Rubens	(1577-1640), representative of the baroque painters, colorful style characterized by animated figures, melodramatic contrasts and monumental size, enormously successful	24
7403608557	Richelieu	(1585-1642), ruled as regent in place of Louis XIII, set in place the cornerstone of French absolutism, reshuffled royal council to curb the power of the nobility, established intendant system—intendants appointed directly by the monarch, solely responsible to him, enforced royal orders and weakened the power of the nobility, established French Academy to standardize language	25
7403608558	Jean-Baptiste Colbert	(1619-1683), appointed minister of finance by Louis XIV, applied system of mercantilism to France, believed France should be self-sufficient, attempted to accomplish this through state support of industries, created a powerful merchant marine to transport French goods, hoped to make Canada part of a vast French empire	26
7403608559	Moliere	(1622-1673), French playwright, plays that followed classical models but were based on careful social observation, made bourgeoisie the butt of his ridicule	27
7403608560	Miguel de Cervantes	(1547-1616), wrote Don Quixote, characterized 17th c. Spain	28
7403608561	William Laud	(1573-1645), archbishop of Canterbury, insisted on complete uniformity in church services, attempted to impose a new book of prayer on Scotland in 1637, the Scots revolted	29
7403608562	John Locke	(1632-1704), wrote Second Treatise of Civil Government, maintained that people set up civil governments to protect life, liberty and property, a government that oversteps this is a tyranny and must be overthrown, also wrote Essay Concerning Human Understanding, put forth the tabula rasa theory, which suggests that all ideas are derived from experience	30
7403608563	Nicolaus Copernicus	(1473-1543), felt that Ptolemy's rules for the movement of the planets detracted from the majesty of a perfect universe, preferred the idea that the sun, not the Earth, was the center of the universe, suggested a universe of staggering size, destroyed idea of crystal spheres, attacked by religious leaders, events brought credibility to the Copernican hypothesis (new star, new comet)	31
7403608564	Tycho Brahe	(1546-1601), established himself as Europe's leading astronomer, collected a mass of data, believed that all planets revolved around the sun and that system revolved around the earth-moon system	32
7403608565	Johannes Kepler	(1571-1630), made sense of Brahe's observations, formulated three laws of planetary motion: 1) orbits of planets are elliptical, 2) planets do not move at a uniform speed in their orbits, 3) the time a planet takes to complete its orbit is precisely related to its distance from the sun	33
7403608566	Galileo Galilei	(1564-1642), challenged old ideas about motion, elaborated on and consolidated the experimental method, now people could conduct controlled experiments, formulated the law of inertia, which explained that an object continues in motion forever until stopped by an external force, applied experimental method to astronomy	34
7403608567	Isaac Newton	(1642-1727), united experimental and theoretical/mathematical sides of science, created a set of mathematical laws to explain motion and mechanics, created the law of universal gravitation	35
7403608568	Francis Bacon	(1561-1626), argued that new knowledge had to be pursued through empirical, experimental research, formulated empirical method, claimed it would result in highly practical knowledge	36
7403608569	Rene Descartes	(1596-1650), discovered analytic geometry, showed that geometric figures could be expressed as algebraic equations and vice versa, established Cartesian dualism, which reduced everything to physical and spiritual entities	37
7403608570	Bernard de Fontenelle	(1657-1757), sought to make science witty and entertaining to a borad non-scientific audience, helped bring science into conflict with religion, skeptical about absolute truth and the claims of organized religion	38
7403608571	Montesquieu	(1689-1755), used wit as a weapon against cruelty and superstition, applied critical method to government in The Spirit of Laws, argued that despotism could be avoided through a separation of powers, believed a strong, independent upper class was very important	39
7403608572	Voltaire	(1694-1778), struggled against legal injustice and unequal treatment before the law, shared Montesquieu's enthusiasm for English institutions, mixed glorification of science and reason with an appeal for better institutions and individuals, did not believe in social and economic equality in human affairs, challenged Christianity, believed in a deistic God (the great Clockmaker), hated all forms of religious intolerance	40
7403608573	Baron Paul d'Holbach	(1723-1789), argued that human beings were machines completely determined by outside forces, deeply hostile toward religion	41
7403608574	David Hume	(1711-1776), argued that the human mind is nothing but a bundle of impressions which originate in sense experiences, reason cannot tell us anything that cannot be verified by sense experiences, undermined the Enlightenment's faith in reason	42
7403608575	Jean-Jacques Rousseau	(1712-1778), greatly influenced by Diderot and Voltaire, committed to individual freedom, felt civilization destroyed the individual, believed the general will reflected the common interests of the people, and that it must be interpreted by a small, far-seeing minority, called for greater love and tenderness towards children	43
7403608576	Immanuel Kant	(1724-1804), greatest German philosopher of the age, believed in freedom of the press (Categorical Imperitive)	44
7403608577	Jethro Tull	(1674-1741), tried to develop better methods of farming through empirical research, advocated using horses for plowing and sowing seed with drilling equipment	45
7403608578	Adam Smith	(1723-1790), established the basis for modern economics, opposed mercantilism, advocated free competition, believed the purpose of the government was for defense, maintenance of civil order and support of key social institutions, claimed market would be regulated by an "invisible hand"	46
7403608579	Edward Jenner	(1749-1823), collected data on the prevention of smallpox by cowpox, able to produce a vaccine for smallpox	47
7403608580	Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes	wrote What is the Third Estate?, argued that the nobility was a tiny, overprivileged minority and that the 3rd estate comprised the true strength of the French nation	48
7403608581	Maximilien Robespierre	(1758-1794), head of the Committee of Public Safety, organized the Reign of Terror, executed by guillotine during Thermidorian Reaction	49
7403608582	Edmund Burke	(1729-1797), criticized French Revolution, defended privileges of the monarchy and aristocracy, felt the revolution would only lead to chaos and tyranny	50
7403608583	Mary Wollstonecraft	(1759-1797), wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Man and A Vindication of the Rights of Women, firm feminist, demanded education for women, advocated female participation in politics and an expansion of women's rights	51
7403608584	James Watt	(1736-1819), invented a more efficient steam engine, added a separate condenser to improve the Newcomen engine, solved the crisis of energy for Britain	52
7403608585	Thomas Malthus	(1766-1834), wrote Essay on the Principle of Population, argued that population would always outstrip the food supply, believed people should marry later in life to reduce population growth	53
7403608586	David Ricardo	(1772-1823), suggested the iron law of wages, which suggested that the pressure of population growth would always cause wages to sink to subsistence level	54
7403608587	Frederich List	(1789-1846), believed the growth of modern industry was of utmost importance, improved people's well-being and reduced poverty, believed promoting industry ensured national security, supported formation of the Zollverein among the German states, advocated a high protective tariff to protect domestic industry	55
7403608588	Friedrich Engels	(1820-1895), wrote The Condition of the Working Class in England, claimed industrial capitalism had caused a dramatic increase in poverty, later the colleague of Karl Marx, wrote The Communist Manifesto	56
7403608589	Charles Fourier	(1772-1837), advocated a socialist utopian made up of self-sufficient communities, supported the total emancipation of women, criticized marriage	57
7403608590	Louis Blanc	(1811-1882), emphasized practical improvements, believed the state should set up workshops to reduce unemployment	58
7403608591	Karl Marx	(1818-1883), published The Communist Manifesto with Friedrich Engels, believed the interests of the proletariat and the bourgeoisie were inevitably opposed, proletariat would triumph in a violent revolution	59
7403608592	Georg Hegel	(1770-1831), believed each age is characterized by a dominant set of ideas, giving history pattern and purpose	60
7403608593	Victor Hugo	(1802-1885), wrote lyric poetry, amazing range of rhythm, language and image, equated freedom in literature with social and political liberty	61
7403608594	Eugene Delacroix	(1798-1863), greatest romantic painter in France, painted dramatic, colorful scenes that stirred the emotions	62
7403608595	Joseph M. W. Turner	(1775-1851), notable English romantic painter, depicted nature's power and terror	63
7403608596	Ludwig van Beethoven	(1770-1827), composer, used contrasting themes and tones to create drama	64
7403608597	Louis Pasteur	(1822-1895), developed the germ theory of disease, found that the growth of bacteria could be suppressed by heat (pasteurization)	65
7403608598	Joseph Lister	(1827-1912), found connection between aerial bacteria and wound contamination, developed anti-septic principle	66
7403608599	Auguste Comte	(1798-1857), French philosopher, wrote System of Positive Philosophy, postulated that all intellectual activity passes through predictable stages, developed positivist method, a discipline of sociology	67
7403608600	Charles Darwin	(1809-1882), all life had evolved from a constant struggle for survival, believed that chance differences among members of a certain species allowed them to survive, variations eventually spread to entire species	68
7403608601	Herbert Spencer	(1820-1903), Social Darwinist, saw the human race as driven toward ever greater specialization in the brutal economic struggle	69
7403608602	Emile Zola	(1840-1902), realist writer, violently criticized social situation, strict determinist, famous for animalistic view of working class life, sympathized with socialism	70
7403608603	Leo Tolstoy	(1828-1910), greatest Russian realist, probed deeply into the lives of his characters, fatalistic theory of history, regarded free will as an illusion	71
7403608604	Cavour	dominant figure in Sardinia government 1850-1861, worked to consolidate Sardinia as a liberal constitutional state capable of leading northern Italy, worked for a secret diplomatic alliance with Napoleon III against Austria, regained Napoleon's support by ceding Savoy and Nice to France	72
7403608605	Giuseppe Garibaldi	(1807-1882), personified the romantic, revolutionary nationalism of Mazzini, aimed to "liberate" the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, his Red Shirts roused the peasants and conquered Sicily	73
7403608606	Sergei Witte	Russian minister of finance 1892-1903, believed industrial backwardness threatened Russia's power and greatness, encouraged building of railroads, established high protective tariffs to build domestic industry, put the country on the gold standard to strengthen Russia finances, used the West to catch up with the West	74
7403608607	Benjamin Disraeli	(1804-1881), extended the vote to all middle class males, aimed to broaden the Conservative party's traditional base of aristocratic and landed support	75
7403608608	William Gladstone	(1809-1898), Liberal prime minister, introduced bills to give Ireland self-government that failed to pass	76
7403608609	Muhammad Ali	(1769-1849), appointed governor of Egypt by Turkish government, built his state on the strength of an army organized along European lines, reformed the government and improved communications, established a strong and virtually independent Egyptian state, encouraged the development of commercial agriculture	77
7403608610	Cecil Rhodes	led British imperialism in Africa, conquered Bechuanaland (Botswana) and Rhodesia (Zimbabwe and Zambia), developed gold mines, laid the foundations for apartheid	78
7403608611	Rasputin	self-proclaimed holy man, great influence over Tsarina Alexandra, treated son Alexei's hemophilia through hypnosis, murdered in December 1916	79
7403608612	Frederich Nietzsche	(1844-1900), German philosopher, believed West overemphasized rationality and stifled passion and creativity, questioned all values, claimed Christianity glorified weakness, envy and mediocrity, believed pillars of conventional morality needed to be replaced	80
7403608613	Marie Curie	(1867-1934), discovered that radium constantly emits subatomic particles and thus does not have a constant atomic weight	81
7403608614	Max Planck	(1858-1947), showed that atomic energy is emitted in uneven spurts called "quanta", called into question distinction between matter and energy	82
7403608615	Albert Einstein	(1879-1955), undermined Newtonian physics, theory of space relativity postulated that time and space are relative to the viewpoint of the observer, only the speed of light is constant for all frames of reference, stated that matter and energy are interchangeable, greatly expanded the world of physics	83
7403608616	Werner Heisenberg	(1901-1976), German physicist, formulated principle of uncertainty, impossible to know both the speed and location of an individual electron at the same time	84
7403608617	Sigmund Freud	(1856-1939), believed the human mind is basically irrational, controlled by id (irrational unconscious), ego (rationalizing conscious) and superego (ingrained moral values), mechanisms of traditional society and rationality restrain passion and sexual desires, received popular attention in 1918, undermined optimism about rational nature of human mind	85
7403608618	Virginia Woolf	(1882-1941), used stream-of-consciousness technique, series of internal monologues with ideas and emotions from varying time periods	86
7403608619	William Faulkner	(1897-1962), used stream-of-consciousness technique	87
7403608620	James Joyce	(1882-1941), used stream-of-consciousness technique, language of bewildering confusion intended to mirror modern life itself	88
7403608621	George Orwell	(1903-1950), predicted a totalitarian utopian world, believed "absolute power corrupts absolutely"	89
7403608622	Paul Cezanne	(1839-1906), committed to form and ordered design, later work increasingly abstract and non-representational, moved toward 2-D plane	90
7403608623	John Maynard Keynes	(1883-1946), English economist, believed harsh reparations would impoverish Germany and increase economic hardship in all other European countries, only a complete revision of the treaty could save Europe, advocated the use of large-scale deficits to stimulate the economy	91
7403608624	Ramsay MacDonald	(1866-1937)-governed England in 1924 and 1929, part of Labour party, supported by smaller Liberal party	92
7403608625	Karl Lueger	(1844-1910), mayor of Vienna, succeeded in winning support of the people, greatly influenced Hitler, showed him the enormous potential of anticapitalist and antiliberal propaganda	93
7403608626	Gandhi	(1869-1948), built a mass movement preaching nonviolent "noncooperation" with the British, received a constitution in 1935, practically a blueprint for independence	94
7403608627	Alexander Dubcek	(1921-1992), launched dramatic reforms in Czechslovakia, believed he could reconcile socialism with personal freedom and internal party democracy, relaxed controls and censorship, Russian troops invaded, forced to obey Soviet demands	95
7403608628	Simone de Beauvoir	(1908-1986), feminist, wrote The Second Sex, analyzed position of women through framework of existentialist thought, women trapped by limiting and inflexible conditions, must use courageous action and self-assertive creativity to break free	96

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Ethnicity - AP Human Geography Flashcards

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8543958864	ethnicity	Cultural traits; Identity with people who share cultural traditions of a particular homeland or hearth.	0
8543958865	nationality	Identity as member of a nation/state; Legal status (citizenship); Allegiance (loyalty) to a nation/state	1
8543958866	race	Physical traits; Identity with a group of people based on a biological ancestor.	2
8543958867	racism	A belief in superiority or inferiority of people purely because of race.	3
8543958868	genocide	The mass killing of a group of people in an attempt to create an ethnically homogenous region.	4
8543958869	ethnic cleansing	A process in which a more powerful ethnic group attempts to remove a less powerful one in order to create an ethnically homogeneous region.	5
8543958870	Apartheid	Separation of races into geographic areas ("homelands"); Forced migration of blacks into "homelands"; Established in South Africa after independence from the British Empire and in effect until the 1990s.	6
8543958871	segregation	Separation of public life based on race; Laws established in the US Southern states after slavery and in effect until the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s	7
8543958872	Rwanda	An East African country of 12 million with its capital at Kigali; Site of a 1994 genocide in which the majority Hutu ethnic group attempted to murder all the minority Tutsi ethnic groups.	8
8543958873	Hispanic/Latino/Latina	a person of Cuban, Mexican, Puerto Rican, South or Central American, or other Spanish culture or origin regardless of race; One of the largest ethnic minorities in the U.S.	9
8543958874	Kurds	The largest ethnic group in the world without a homeland; Divided among several nationalities including Turkish, Syrian, Iraqi, and Iranian nationalities.	10
8543958875	Indian partition of 1947	British exit lead to ethnic conflict and the creation of Pakistan	11
8543958877	Balkanization	Process by which a state breaks down through conflicts among its ethnicities.	12
8543958878	Balkanized	A small geographic area that could not successfully be organized into one or more stable states because it was inhabited by many ethnicities with complex, long-standing antagonisms toward each other.	13
8543958879	Blockbusting	A process by which real estate agents convince white property owners to sell their houses at low prices because of fear that black families will soon move into the neighborhood.	14
8543958882	Ethnicity	A social division based on national origin, religion, language, and often race.	15
8543958883	Ethnic cleansing	Process in which more powerful ethnic group forcibly removes a less powerful one in order to create an ethnically homogeneous region.	16
8543958884	Genocide	(n.) the deliberate killing of a large group of people, especially those of a particular ethnic group or nation.	17
8543958885	Multiethnic State	A state that contains more than one ethnicity.	18
8543958887	Nationalism	A strong feeling of pride in and devotion to one's country or ethnic group.	19
8543958888	Nationality	Identity with a group of people that share legal attachment and personal allegiance to a particular place as a result of being born there.	20
8543958889	Nation-state	A state whose territory corresponds to that occupied by a particular ethnicity that has been transformed into a nationality.	21
8543958890	Part nation state	When a nation overlaps the boundaries of multiple states/you have multiple nations states of the same the same nation (Arabia).	22
8543958891	Race	Identity with a group of people descended from a common ancestor.	23
8543958892	Racism	Belief that one race is superior to another.	24
8543958893	Racist	A person who subscribes to the beliefs of racism.	25
8543958894	Self determination	Concept that ethnicities have the right to govern themselves.	26
8543958895	Sharecropper	A person who works fields rented from a landowner and pays the rent and repays loans by turning over to the landowner a share of the crops.	27
8543958896	Triangular Slave Trade	A practice, primarily during the eighteenth century, in which European ships transported slaves from Africa to Caribbean islands, molasses from the Caribbean to Europe, and trade goods from Europe to Africa.	28
8543958897	White flight	The departure of whites from places (like urban neighborhoods or schools) increasingly or predominantly populated by ethnic minorities.	29
8543958898	Ghetto	A section of a city where members of a minority group live due to social, legal or economic pressure	30
8543958899	Ethnic Enclave	A place with a high concentration of an ethnic group that is different than the surrounding area.	31
8543958900	Ethnoburb	A suburban area with a cluster of a particular ethnic group. a suburb with a concentration of a particular ethnic group.	32

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AP Psychology - Consciousness Flashcards

Advanced Placement Psychology
Enterprise High School, Redding, CA
All terms from Myers Psychology for AP (BFW Worth, 2011)

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4806527643	consciousness	our awareness of ourselves and our environment.	0
4806527644	circadian rhythm	the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle.	1
4806527645	REM (rapid eye movement) sleep	recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.	2
4806527646	alpha waves	the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state.	3
4806527648	hallucinations	false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus.	4
4806527649	delta waves	the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep.	5
4806527650	Stages 1-3 sleep	non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep.	6
4806527651	insomnia	recurring problems in falling or staying asleep.	7
4806527652	narcolepsy	a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.	8
4806527653	sleep apnea	a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings.	9
4806527654	night terrors	a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, these occur during Stage 4 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered.	10
4806527655	activation synthesis model	the hypothesis that dreams are the result of random neurological activity in the brain	11
4806527656	manifest content	according to Freud, the story of the dream.	12
4806527657	latent content	according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content).	13
4806527658	REM rebound	the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep).	14
4806527659	hypnosis	a social interaction in which one person suggests to another that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur.	15
4806527660	posthypnotic suggestion	a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors.	16
4806527662	psychoactive drug	a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods.	17
4806527663	tolerance	the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect.	18
4806527664	withdrawal	the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug.	19
4806527665	physical dependence	a physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued.	20
4806527666	psychological dependence	a psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions.	21
4806527667	addiction	compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences.	22
4806527668	depressants	drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions.	23
4806527669	barbiturates	drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment.	24
4806527670	opiates	opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety.	25
4806527671	stimulants	drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.	26
4806527672	amphetamines	drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing sped-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes.	27
4806527673	methamphetamines	a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with sped-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels.	28
4806527674	Ecstacy (MDMA)	a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition.	29
4806527675	hallucinogens	psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input.	30
4806527676	LSD	a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid (lysergic acid diethylamide).	31
4806527678	THC	the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations.	32
8088492130	Cocktail Party Phenomenon	The ability to tune out noise and focus on one auditory source at a time	33
8088492131	Dichotic Listening	A study that found that if listening to 2 auditory sources at the same time you need to switch your focused conscious attention back and forth	34
8088493912	Levels of Consciousness	Minimal, Full, Self (unique to humans/few other species)	35
8088533982	Ironic Process of Mental Control	When suppressing thoughts they come back with more frequency	36

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AP Biology- Endocrine System Flashcards

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5725229091	Endocrine System	Releases hormones, chemicals released by ductless glands into the blood stream that can have an effect anywhere in the body	0
5725229092	Tropic hormones	Hormones that stimulate other endocrine glands to release their hormones	1
5725229093	Pheromones	Hormones released by one animal that affect other animals	2
5725229094	Nitric Oxide	Hormone found in vertebrates Gas released by one cell and reaches neighboring cells by diffusion	3
5725229095	Control Metamorphosis in Insects	Hormones: ecdysone, juvenile hormone, brain hormone	4
5725229096	Hypothalamus	Bridge between endocrine and nervous systems Sends electrical signals to adrenal gland to release adrenaline Releases oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone into posterior pituitary for storage	5
5725229097	Anterior Pituitary	Growth hormone (GH)- Bone growth Luteinizing hormone (LH)- Ovaries and testes Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)- Thyroid to release thyroxin Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)- Adrenal cortex to release cortisol Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)- gonads to produce gametes	6
5725229098	Posterior Pituitary	Stores and releases hormones (oxytocin-stimulates contraction of uterus and mammary glands during labor and ADH- stimulates the collecting tubule in nephron) from hypothalamus	7
5725229099	Thyroid Gland	Releases thyroxin- controls rate of metabolism Releases calcitonin- lowers blood calcium levels by facilitating uptake of calcium by bones	8
5725229100	Parathyroid Gland	Releases parathormone- raises blood calcium levels by removing calcium from bones Works in opposition to calcitonin	9
5725229101	Adrenal Cortex	Responds to stress by releasing corticosteroids- cortisol Raises blood sugar levels	10
5725229102	Adrenal Medulla	Releases epinephrine (adrenaline)- the "fight or flight" hormone- raises blood sugar levels by increasing breakdown of glycogen in liver	11
5725229103	Pancreas	Functions as both endocrine gland (releasing hormones) and exocrine gland (releasing digestive enzymes) Releases insulin to lower blood glucose levels Releases glucagon to raise blood glucose levels	12
5725229104	Thymus Gland	Most active in fetal and postnatal life Essential to development of a normal immune system Stimulates proliferation of T-lymphcytes	13
5725229105	Pineal Gland	In brain Secretes hormone melatonin	14
5725229106	Ovaries	Estrogen- stimulates uterine lining, promotes development and maintenance of primary and secondary sexual characteristics Progesterone- promotes growth of uterine lining	15
5725229107	Testes	Testosterone- supports sperm production and secondary sexual characteristics	16
5725229108	Positive Feedback	Mechanisms amplify an already existing response and bring a process to an end	17
5725229109	Negative Feedback	Mechanisms maintain homeostasis	18
5725229110	Signal-Transduction Pathway	1. Chemicals bind to a receptor on the surface of the plasma membrane 2. Triggers a secondary messenger (cAMP or calcium ions) 3. Converts chemical signal to a specific cellular response from the nucleus	19

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