| 6051573410 | Transformation | a change in genotype and phenotype due to assimilation of foreign DNA | | 0 |
| 6051573411 | bacteriophages | viruses that infect bacteria. Bacteriophages consist only of proteins and DNA. | | 1 |
| 6051573412 | DNA is the genetic material | polymer of nucleotides, DNA composition varies from one species to the next, A and T bases are equal and the number of G and C bases are equal |  | 2 |
| 6051573413 | nucleotides | a nitrogenous base, a sugar, and a phosphate group |  | 3 |
| 6051573414 | Purine | A/G, 2 organic rings, 2X the size, 2 hydrogen bonds |  | 4 |
| 6051573415 | Pyrimidine | C/T, single ring, X size, 3 hydrogen bonds |  | 5 |
| 6051573416 | Why do purine and pyrimidines bases always pair together? | because of the number of *hydrogen bonds* they are able to form | | 6 |
| 6051573417 | Semiconservative model | | | 7 |
| 6051573418 | origins of replication | The site where replication occurs where the two DNA strands are separated, opening up a replication "bubble". |  | 8 |
| 6051573419 | DNA polymerase | adds nucleotides to the 3' end of the growing DNA sequence. It needs a primer. It can only go in one direction and extend on an existing DNA molecule
is gets it's energy from dATP |  | 9 |
| 6051573420 | RNA Primase | In DNA replication, RNA primase adds temporary RNA nucleotides for DNA polymerase to work from and add nucleotides to |  | 10 |
| 6051573421 | replication fork | a Y-shaped region where new DNA strands are elongating that is located at the end of the replication bubble. |  | 11 |
| 6051573422 | Single-strand binding proteins | bind to and stabilize single-stranded DNA | | 12 |
| 6051573423 | Helicases | enzymes that untwist the double helix at the replication forks. | | 13 |
| 6051573424 | Topoisomerase | corrects "overwinding" ahead of replication forks by breaking, swiveling, and rejoining DNA strands | | 14 |
| 6051573425 | leading strand | the template strand of DNA where replication happens continuously toward the replication fork because it is aligned properly | | 15 |
| 6051573426 | lagging strand | the template strand of DNA where DNA polymerase must work in the direction away from the replication fork |  | 16 |
| 6051573427 | Other functions of DNA polymerases | proof reading by replacing any incorrect nucleotides | | 17 |
| 6051573428 | Okazaki fragments | The fragments that are going by DNA ligase to compose the lagging strand. They are short replicated fragments on the lagging strand that are formed 5-3. The spaces between the fragments are filled via DNA ligase to make a continuous DNA strand. |  | 18 |
| 6051573429 | mismatch repair | repair enzymes that correct errors in base pairing | | 19 |
| 6051573430 | nucleotide excision repair | a *nuclease* cuts out and replaces damaged stretches of DNA | | 20 |
| 6051573431 | Telomeres | non-coding DNA at the ends of chromosomes.
Telomerase adds "junk" repeats to leading strands... Polymerase is able to copy lagging strand...
Now the unreplicated lagging overhang is unimportant "junk" (BUT telomerase can only be found in cancerous tissues) |  | 21 |
| 6051573432 | bacterial chromosome | double-stranded, circular, few | | 22 |
| 6051573433 | eukaryotic chromosome | linear, large amount of protein | | 23 |
| 6051573434 | Chromatin | a complex of DNA and protein, is found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells | | 24 |
| 6051573435 | euchromatin | Loosely packed chromatin | | 25 |
| 6051573436 | heterochromatin | densely pack chromatin | | 26 |
| 6051573437 | What is a gene? | protein | | 27 |
| 6051573438 | How is a gene transcribed? | RNA polymerase | | 28 |
| 6051573439 | How is transcript processed? | RNA splicing | | 29 |
| 6051573440 | What is the language of DNA/RNA? | genetic code | | 30 |
| 6051573441 | How is RNA read? | tRNA | | 31 |
| 6051573442 | How is protein produced? | ribosomes | | 32 |
| 6051573443 | Transcription | the synthesis of RNA using information in DNA
Transcription produces messenger RNA (mRNA) | | 33 |
| 6051573444 | Translation | the synthesis of a polypeptide, using information in the mRNA | | 34 |
| 6051573445 | Codon/triplet nucleotides | The genetic code must be written in triplets because they are the smallest unit of uniform length that can code for all the amino acids. There are 20 amino acids. This will allow for 64 possible codes, with repetition.
Gentic code in universal | | 35 |
| 6051573446 | Reading frame | the sequence of the DNA that is between the start codon and the end codon (with triplet sequences in between). They can be altered/changes when there are insertions and deletions. | | 36 |
| 6051573447 | Ribosomes | the sites of translation (in eukaryotes, the nuclear envelop separates transcription) | | 37 |
| 6051573448 | primary transcript | initial RNA transcript from any gene prior to processing | | 38 |
| 6051573449 | central dogma | he concept that cells are governed by a cellular chain of command: DNA to RNA to protein | | 39 |
| 6051573450 | RNA polymerase | The Starter of RNA synthesis. It pries the DNA strands apart and hooks together the RNA nucleotides | | 40 |
| 6051573451 | terminator | in bacteria, the sequence signaling the end of transcription | | 41 |
| 6051573452 | promoter | The DNA sequence where RNA polymerase attaches to start transcription. | | 42 |
| 6051573453 | transcription unit | The stretch of DNA that is transcribed | | 43 |
| 6051573454 | The three stages of transcription | Initiation, Elongation, Termination | | 44 |
| 6051573455 | transcription initiation complex | The completed assembly of transcription factors and RNA polymerase II bound to a promoter | | 45 |
| 6051573456 | Transcription factors | mediate the binding of RNA polymerase and the initiation of transcription
Transcription factors guide the blind polymerase | | 46 |
| 6051573457 | TATA box | The promotor that crews the initial complex in eukaryotes | | 47 |
| 6051573458 | introns | These noncoding regions are called intervening sequences | | 48 |
| 6051573459 | Initiation of translation | Small subunit of the ribosome attaches to the cap and moves to the translation initial site. TrNA anticodons attach to the codon that had MET (the amino acid for the start codon). The large subs unit attaches to make the P and the A site. | | 49 |
| 6051573460 | Elongation of translation | MET is transferred to the A site amino acid and the tRNA moves along to the next site. The amino acids attach on the tRNA in the a site. The ribosome moves along the mRNA. | | 50 |
| 6051573461 | Termination of translation | A release favor comes in (the stop codon) and the chain stops building on the polypeptide. The protein is then released. | | 51 |
| 6051573462 | exons | they are eventually expressed, usually translated into amino acid sequences |  | 52 |
| 6051573463 | RNA splicing | removes introns and joins exons, creating an mRNA molecule with a continuous coding sequence | | 53 |
| 6051573464 | domains | Proteins often have a modular architecture consisting of discrete regions | | 54 |
| 6051573465 | Ribozymes | catalytic RNA molecules that function as enzymes and can splice RNA | | 55 |
| 6051573466 | RNA | It can form a three-dimensional structure because of its ability to base-pair with itself
Some bases in RNA contain functional groups that may participate in catalysis
RNA may hydrogen-bond with other nucleic acid molecules | | 56 |
| 6051573467 | How is protein synthesized? | Requires all three major types of RNA...
• mRNA - "Recipe"
the coding sequence of the gene
• aminoacyl tRNAs - "Cook"
read codon, carry appropriate amino
acid (translation!)
• rRNA - "Cookware"
forms the core of the ribosome which
forms peptide bonds between amino acids | | 57 |
| 6051573468 | tRNAs | transfer amino acids to the growing polypeptide in a ribosome | | 58 |
| 6051573469 | anticodon | the anticodon base-pairs with a complementary codon on mRNA |  | 59 |
| 6051573470 | wobble | Flexible pairing at the third base of a codon that allows some tRNAs to bind to more than one codon | | 60 |
| 6051573471 | Ribosomes | Ribosomes facilitate specific coupling of tRNA anticodons with mRNA codons in protein synthesis | | 61 |
| 6051573472 | P site | holds the tRNA that carries the growing polypeptide chain |  | 62 |
| 6051573473 | POINT MUTATIONS | single base changed | | 63 |
| 6051573474 | FRAMESHIFTS: | any insertion or deletion NOT divisible by 3 will shift the reading frame...
causing extense missense (wrong amino acid coding) | | 64 |
| 6051573475 | Silent mutations | have no effect | | 65 |
| 6051573476 | missense | have the wrong amino acid | | 66 |
| 6051573477 | nonsense | have an early stop! | | 67 |
| 6051573478 | operator | Aclusteroffunctionallyrelatedgenescanbeundercoordinated control by a single "on-off switch" | | 68 |
| 6051573479 | repressor | can switch the operon off/on by preventing gene transcription by binding to the
operator and blocking RNA polymerase | | 69 |
| 6051573480 | operon | the entire stretch of DNA that includes the operator, the promoter, and the genes that they control
How gene expression is controlled in bacteria
they are only in prokaryotes | | 70 |
| 6051573481 | corepressor | a molecule that cooperates with a repressor protein to switch an operon off (tryp) | | 71 |
| 6051573482 | REPRESSIBLE OPERON: | repressor is NOT bound; operon is usually on
• for enzymes that ARE normally needed
• can be turned OFF if not needed (repressor
is made active by excess product of the pathway)
tryp
***anabolic pathways; their synthesis is repressed by high levels of the end product
***negative control | | 72 |
| 6051573483 | INDUCIBLE OPERON: | repressor IS bound; operon is usually off
• for enzymes that are usually NOT needed • can be turned ON when necessary
(repressor is inhibitted by the pathway's substrate)
lac
***catabolic pathways; their synthesis is induced by a chemical signal
***negative control | | 73 |
| 6051573484 | eukaryotic gene regulation | happens through many steps | | 74 |
| 6051573485 | DNA PACKING:
regulation of eukaryotes | Regulate condensation of DNA regions into
inactive heterochromatin or decondensation into transcriptionally active euchromatin | | 75 |
| 6051573486 | TRANSCRIPTION:
regulation of eukaryotes | Regulate individual genes using transcription
factors (TFs) and activators | | 76 |
| 6051573487 | RNA PROCESSING:
regulation of eukaryotes | Regulate alternative splicing possibilities with
proteins that block splice sites | | 77 |
| 6051573488 | RNA OR PROTEIN DEGRADATION:
regulation of eukaryotes | Regulate lifespan of each using exonucleases
and proteasomes | | 78 |
| 6051573489 | Result of heterochromatin | Genes within highly packed heterochromatin are usually not expressed | | 79 |
| 6051573490 | NUCLEOSOME | DNA makes 1.75 turns around the histone octamer |  | 80 |
| 6051573491 | HISTONES | DNA is wrapped around a set of eight proteins
Histones are small, proteins that binds tightly to negatively charged DNA to make chromatin. |  | 81 |
| 6051573492 | Chromatin | DNA packaged with proteins | | 82 |
| 6051573493 | histone acetylation | acetyl groups are attached to positively charged lysines in histone tails | | 83 |
| 6051573494 | control elements | segments of noncoding DNA that serve as binding sites for transcription factors that help regulate transcription | | 84 |
| 6051573495 | DNA methylation | the addition of methyl groups to certain bases in DNA, is associated with reduced transcription in some species. DNA methylation can cause long-term inactivation of genes in cellular differentiation. Methylation regulates expression of either the maternal or paternal alleles of certain genes at the start of development
basically, it loosens or tightens the chromatin to allow or inhibition transcription by making DNA available or not. | | 85 |
| 6051573496 | Control elements and the transcription factors | they bind and are critical to the precise regulation of gene expression in different cell types | | 86 |
| 6051573497 | transcription factors | To initiate transcription, eukaryotic RNA polymerase requires the assistance of proteins called transcription factors***
are essential for the transcription of all protein-coding genes. Some transcription factors function as repressors, inhibiting expression of a particular gene by a variety of methods | | 87 |
| 6051573498 | alternative RNA splicing | different mRNA molecules are produced from the same primary transcript, depending on which RNA segments are treated as exons and which as introns | | 88 |
| 6051573499 | Proteasomes | giant protein complexes that bind protein molecules and degrade them | | 89 |
| 6051573500 | RNA interference (RNAi) | The phenomenon of inhibition of gene expression by RNA molecules | | 90 |
| 6051573501 | Cell differentiation | the process by which cells become specialized in structure and function | | 91 |
| 6051573502 | Cytoplasmic determinants | maternal substances in the egg that influence early development | | 92 |
| 6051573503 | induction | signal molecules from embryonic cells cause transcriptional changes in nearby target cells | | 93 |
| 6051573504 | Determination | commits a cell to its final fate | | 94 |
