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anatomy ch. 12-b Flashcards

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7721907096L1 or L2 vertebraehow far down does the spinal cord go0
7721932988conus medullariscone shaped structure where spinal cord terminates1
7721936603filum terminalefibrous extension of conus covered with pia mater, extends to coccyx, anchors the spinal cord2
7721951630enlargementsareas where nerves servicing upper and lower limbs arise from the spinal cord3
7721958713denticulate ligamentsextensions of pia mater that secure cord to dura mater4
7721967734enclosed in the vertebral column, begins at foramen magnum, ends at L1 or L2 vertebragross anatomy of spinal cord5
7721976041provides two way communicationto and from brain and body, major reflex centerfunctions of spinal cord6
7721978070epidural spacecushion of fat and network of veins in space between vertebrae and spinal dura mater7
7721993659spinal nervespart of the PNS, attach to spinal cord at 31 paired roots8
7722014388cervical and lumbarthe two types of enlargements9
772203374531 totalhow many pairs of spinal nerves are there10
77220370588 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, 1 coccygealamount / types of spinal nerves11
7722051848cauda equinacollection of nerve roots at inferior end of vertebral canal12
7722088017cervical, thoracic. lumbrosacral, cauda equinathe levels of the spinal cord13
7722107502basic cord anatomyvery center is the central canal, filled with cerebrospinal fluid. this is surrounded by H shaped grey matter, which has a dorsal ventral and lateral horn on each side. this is surrounded by white matter, which consists of dorsal ventral and lateral funiculus (the white columns). surrounded by pia, arachnoid and spinal dura mater. attached are nerves14
7722144625dorsal horns, ventral horns, lateral hornsthree areas of gray matter15
7722146734dorsal hornsinterneurons that receive somatic and visceral sensory input16
7722151796ventral hornssome interneurons, somatic motor neurons17
7722154884lateral horns(only in thoracic and superior lumbar regions), sympathetic neurons18
7722162184gray commissurebridge of gray matter that connects masses of gray matter on either side (encloses central canal)19
7722168126ventral rootsbundle of motor neuron axons that exit the spinal cord20
7722172263dorsal rootssensory input to cord21
7722177116dorsal root gangliacell bodies of sensory neurons22
7722179892spinal nervesformed by fusion of dorsal and ventral roots23
7722191948somatic sensory, visceral sensory, visceral motor, somatic motorthe four groups of gray matter24
7722197712white mattermyelinated and nonmyelinated nerve fibers allow communication between parts of spinal cord and spinal cord and brain25
7722206745ascending, descending and transversethree directions white matter runs26
7722215712ascendingwhite matter runs up to higher centers (sensory inputs)27
7722218682descendingwhite matter runs down from brain to cord (motor outputs)28
7722231181transversewhite matter that runs from side to side (commisural fibers)29
7722274138first order neuronsconduct impulses from cutaneous receptors and proprioreceptors, branches diffusely as it enters spinal cord or medulla, synapses with second order neurons30
7722282337second order neuronsinterneuron, cell body in dorsal horn of spinal cord or medullary nuclei, axons extend to thalamus or cerebellum31
7723106207third order neuroninterneuron, cell bodies in thalamus, axon extends to somatosensory cortex, none in cerebellum32
7724262535dorsal column (medial lemniscal pathways), spinothalamic pathwaysthe two pathways that transmit somatosensory information to sensory cortex via thalamus33
7724270922spinocerebellar tractsthe pathway that transmits somatosensory signals and terminates in the cerebellum34
7724279266dorsal columntransmits input to somatosensory cortex for discriminative touch and vibrations35
7724287535spinothalamic pathwayslateral and ventral tracts. transmit pain, temperature, coarse touch and pressure impulses within lateral tract36
7724307211spinocerebellar tractsventral and dorsal tracts, convey info about muscle or tendon stretch to cerebellum, used to coordinate muscle activity37
7724335093descending pathwaysdeliver impulses from brain to spinal cord38
7724337479direct and indirectthe two groups of descending pathways39
7724339476direct pathwayspyramidal tracts, descend directly without synapsing until axon reaches end of tract in spinal cord regulates fast and fine movements40
7724342454indirect pathwaysmultineuronal pathways, complex and multisynaptic, includes brain stem motor nuclei and all motor pathways except pyramidal pathways regulate: axial muscles, balance and posture, coarse limb movements, head neck and eye movements41
7724345756two neuronsmotor pathways involve :42
7724350590upper motor neuronspyramidal cells in primary motor cortex43
7724352943lower motor neuronsventral horn motor neurons, innervate skeletal muscles44
7724415349choroid plexuscluster of capillaries that hangs from roof of each ventricle, enclosed by pia mater and surrounding layer of ependymal cells45
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AP World History Period 1 Flashcards

From Hunting and Gathering to Civilizations, 2.5 million-1000 B.C.E.: Origins
Original from MrsBHatchTEACHER

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6615788731hunting and gatheringMeans of obtaining subsistence by humans before the mastery of sedentary agriculture; normally typical of tribal social organization0
6615788732civilizationSocieties with reliance on sedentary agriculture, ability to produce food surpluses, and existence of nonfarming elites, along with merchant and manufacturing groups1
6615788733neolithicThe New Stone Age between 8000 and 5000 B.C.E.; period in which adaptation of sedentary agriculture occurred; domestication of plants and animals accomplished2
6615788734nomadic societieslivestock hearding societies that do not have a permanent settlement. normally found on the fringes of civilized (urban) societies; commonly referred to as "barbarian" by civilized societies3
6615788735cultureCombination of ideas, objects, and patterns of behavior that result from human social interaction4
6615788736agrarian revolutionOccurred between 8000 and 5000 B.C.E.; transition from hunting and gathering to sedentary agriculture5
6615788737pastoralismA nomadic agricultural lifestyle based on herding domesticated animals; tended to produce independent people capable of challenging sedentary agricultural societies6
6615788738Catal HuyukEarly urban culture/civiization based on sedentary agriculture; located in modern southern Turkey; larger in population than Jericho, had greater degree of social stratification7
6615788739Bronze AgeFrom 4000 to 3000 B.C.E.; increased use of plow, metalworking; development of wheeled vehicles, writing8
6615788740MesopotamiaLiterally "between the rivers"; the civilization that arose in the alluvial plain of the Tigris-Euphrates river valleys9
6615788741potter's wheelA technological advance in pottery making; invented circa 6000 B.C.E.; encouraged faster and higher-quality ceramic pottery products10
6615788742SumeriansPeople who migrated into Mesopotamia circa 4000 B.C.E.; created the first civilization within the region; organized area into city-states11
6615788743cuneiformA form of writing developed by the Sumerians using a wedge-shaped stylus and clay tablets12
6615788744city-stateA form of political organization typical of Mesopotamian civilization; consisted of agricultural hinterlands ruled by an urban-based king13
6615788745ziggurata massive tower building usually associated with Mesopotamian temple connections14
6615788746Babylonian EmpireUnified all of Mesopotamia circa 1800 B.C.E.; collapsed due to foreign invasion circa 1600 B.C.E.15
6615788747HammurabiThe most important Babylonian ruler; responsible for codification of the law16
6615788748PharaohThe term used to denote the kings of ancient Egypt; the term, "great house" refers to the palace of the pharaohs17
6615788749pyramidsMonumental architecture typical of Old Kingdom Egypt; used as burial sites for pharaohs18
6615788750hieroglyphsForm of writing developed in ancient Egypt; more pictorial than Mesopotamian cuneiform19
6615788751KushAfrican state that developed along the upper reaches of the Nile circa 1000 B.C.E.; conquered Egypt and ruled it for several centuries20
6615788752monotheismThe exclusive worship of one god; introduced by Jews into Middle Eastern civilization21
6615788753PhoeniciansSeafaring civilization located on the shores of the eastern Mediterranean; established colonies throughout the Mediterranean22
6615788754Harappa and Mohenjo DaroMajor urban complexes of Harappan civilization; laid out on planned grid pattern23
6615788755AryansIndo-European nomadic, warlike, pastorialists who replaced Harappan civilization24
6615788756Huanghe (Yellow) River BasinSite of the development of sedentary agriculture in China25
6615788757Shang1st Chinese dynasty (after the legendary Xia)26
6615788758OraclesShamans or priests in Chinese society who foretold the future through interpreting animal bones cracked by heat; inscriptions on bones led to Chinese writing27
6615788759ideographic writingPictograph characters grouped together to create new concepts; typical of Chinese writing28
6615788760Big GeographyA term that draws attention to the global nature of world history.29
6615788761PaleolithicThe period that ended about 3,000 years after the end of the last Ice Age, it lasted until about 10,000 years ago. (Old Stone Age) The period of the Stone Age associated with the evolution of humans. It predates the Neolithic period.30
6615788762Human migration during Paleolithic eramovement of humans from Africa to Eurasia, Australia, and the Americas31
6615788763eglitarianequality among people (no social levels)32
6615788764toolsHumans developed a wider range of ____ specially adapted to different environments from tropics to tundra33
6615788765Neolithic Revolutionperiod of change from hunter-gatherer lifesyle to agricultural lifestyles associated with domestication, farming, and settlement34
6615788766patriarchyfather based/male dominated society35
6615788767climatic changePermanent agricultural villages emerged first in the lands of the eastern Mediterranean, possibly as a response to what?36
6615788768weaponsPastoralists were often the developers and disseminators of of ____ and forms of transportation that transformed warfare in agrarian civilizations37
6615788769horsesname one mode of new transportation by the pastoralists38
6615788770artElites, both political and religious, promoted ____.39
6615788771record-keeping systems___ arose independently in all early civilization sand subsequently were diffused40
6615788772Nile RiverThis river flooded regularly.41
6615788773Tigris RiverThis river's floods were unpredictable.42
6615788774MesopotamianUnpredictable weather patterns affected the development of the _____ civilization.43
6615788775Egyptian_______art demonstrated little change for nearly 1000 years.44
6615788776Nubia and KushKingdoms upriver from Egypt.45
6615788777Standard of Ur46
6615788778Harappan King or Priest Figure47
6615788779JerichoOne of the earliest cities: located in modern Israel.48
6615788780Catal-HyoukOne of the earliest cities: located in modern Turkey.49
6615788781Papyrusa material prepared in ancient Egypt from the pithy stem of a water plant, used in sheets throughout the ancient Mediterranean world for writing or painting on and also for making rope, sandals, and boats.50
6615854692Mandate of HeavenThe Chinese philosophical concept of the circumstances under which a ruler is allowed to rule.51
6615862602Hittitea member of an ancient people who established an empire in Asia Minor and Syria that flourished from c. 1700 to c. 1200 BC.52
6615869219HatshepsutHatshepsut ( meaning Foremost of Noble Ladies; 1507-1458 BC) was the fifth pharaoh of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt.53
6615880066AkhenatenAkhenaten, known before the fifth year of his reign as Amenhotep IV, was an Ancient Egyptian pharaoh of the 18th Dynasty who ruled for 17 years and died perhaps in 1336 BC or 1334 BC.54
6615891387Ramesses IIRamesses II, also known as Ramesses the Great and Ozymandias, was the third pharaoh of the Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt. He often is regarded as the greatest, most celebrated, and most powerful pharaoh of the Egyptian Empire.55
6615895781AshurbanipalAshurbanipal, also spelled Assurbanipal or Ashshurbanipal, was an Assyrian king, the son of Esarhaddon and the last strong king of the Neo-Assyrian Empire.56
6615908022IsraelIsrael, a Middle Eastern country on the Mediterranean Sea, is regarded by Jews, Christians and Muslims as the biblical Holy Land. Its most sacred sites are in Jerusalem.57
6615919713Cyrus the GreatCyrus II of Persia, commonly known as Cyrus the Great and also called Cyrus the Elder by the Greeks, was the founder of the Achaemenid Empire.58
6615922783Ideologya system of ideas and ideals, especially one that forms the basis of economic or political theory and policy.59
6615925587Royal Roadan ancient highway reorganized and rebuilt by the Persian king Darius the Great of the Achaemenid Empire in the 5th century BC.60
6615930034PolynesianPolynesia is a subregion of Oceania, made up of over 1,000 islands scattered over the central and southern Pacific Ocean.61
6615940204Hebrew BibleHebrew Bible or Hebrew Scriptures is the term used by biblical scholars to refer to the Tanakh, the canonical collection of Jewish texts, which is the common textual source of several canonical editions of the Christian Old Testament.62
6615941687Phoeniciansan ancient civilization composed of independent city-states which lay along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea stretching through what is now Syria, Lebannon and northern Israel.63
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Classical Empires in AP World History Flashcards

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6824684929Persian EmpireConsisted of two empires that developed respectively: Achaemenid and Parthian. Wa so large that the king used regional leaders known as satraps to watch over portions of the empire and report back to him. Had one of the world's first highway systems; it was used by the empire's armies to move rapidly from place to place and by the king's messengers. Empire overextended itself and became vulnerable to attack from the outside.0
6824684932Qing DynastyRose after the chaos of the Warring States period (500 BCE - 200 BCE) in East Asia. This dynasty believed the heavens would provide them with a ruler who could establish a ruling family line until its leaders displeased the powers in heaven (mandate of heaven). Emperor Qin Shiuangdi was its founder and utilized legalism as a Chinese political philosophy. This dynasty created a solid foundation for dynastic rule in China that endured into the early 20th century. Only lasted from 220 - 206 BCE.1
6824684933Han Dynasty(206 BCE - 220 CE). Lasted much longer than the Qin Dynasty. Existed at about the same time as the Roman Empire and exchanged trade and diplomatic ties with them along the Silk Roads. Empire was roughly as large and wealthy, but more technologically developed than Rome's. Capital was Chang'an (modern Xi'an). Began building the Great Wall of China and canal-digging projects that linked northern and southern China.2
6824684934Mauryan EmpireArose first (c. 321- c. 185 BCE) and stretched from modern Pakistan almost to the southern end of modern India. Its most famous ruler was Ashoka, who converted to a peaceful life under Buddhism after years of empire-building. Hinduism remained the dominant religion in S. Asia during the empire's reign.3
6824684935Gupta Empire(c. 320 CE-c. 550 CE) covered roughly the northern half of today's India and is most notable for its cultural contributions that later found their way into Western culture. Contributed the concept of zero, an efficient numbering system (later introduced to the West as Arabic numerals); chess; and medical advances.4
6824684936Phoenician city-statesBegan spreading their influence from their original base on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean in modern-day Lebanon. Established colonies across the Mediterranean in Greece, Italy, Northern Africa, and Spain. Didn't use military conquest to gain power; heavily interested in trade and specialized in luxury goods. Their colonies in Greece greatly influenced development of Greek Civilization5
6824684937Greek City-States(c. 600 BCE-c. 330 BCE). Contributed to our idea of citizen and democracy. Its early democracy consisted of only free adult men being citizens and voting on government policies, which initiated the idea that government could be influenced by the peaceful voice of its people. It shared a common language and religion, but democracy was not the only form of government in all its city-states. Ex./ Athens allowed participation by its male citizenry, but Sparta was a totalitarian oligarchy, meaning that few men made all the governmental decisions. Its city-states were united by Alexander the Great and expanded to include Egypt and Indus River region.6
6824684938HellenismThe blending of Greek math, science, philosophy, literature, governance, architecture, and art w/ existing forms in Egypt which was an example of cultural syncretism.7
6824684940Byzantine EmpireHeadquartered in Constantinople, it maintained the "glory of Rome" over eastern Mediterranean until the mid fifteenth century CE. It influenced the social, political, and economic development of Russia, Eastern Europe and modern-day Turkey. This empire's greatest legal contribution was its legal system, known as the Code of Justinian and cultural contribution was Hagia Sophia.8
6824684941Mayan EmpireMade complex mathematical calculations, studied the stars, and developed a writing system. Built tall religious temples that looked like Mesopotamia's ziggurats. The biggest city was Tikal. Like the Egyptians, they built large pyramids and temples. Agricultural system featured irrigation and terracing of hillsides and was very successful, supporting a population of about 5 million people w/in the empire.Obtained power through military coercion.9
6824684942TeotihuacanCity-state located to the north of Maya. One of the biggest cities in the world in the Classical Era. Was a separate civilization from the Maya and had a complex government bureaucracy, reservoirs, apartment complexes made of stone, and pyramids dedicated to their gods. Traded with the Mayans.10
6824684943MocheClassical civilization of the Andean region (c. 100-c. 800 CE). Inhabited territory that stretched 250 miles along the mountains of the western coast of modern Peru. Its government was controlled by a class of warrior-priests. Much like the Maya, the Moche built pyramids and other monumental buildings, such as palaces. They traded with neighbors, created complex irrigation systems, terraced mountainsides to grow crops, and practiced human sacrifice. Its craftspeople created some of the world's most beautiful works of art in gold, jewels, and pottery.11
6824684944AlexandriaImportant city in Mediterranean civilizations during Classical Era.12
6824684945CarthageCity-state in North Africa during the Classical Era.13
6824684946RomeImportant city-state in Italy during the Classical Era.14
6824684947PatriarchyMale domination of political, social, and economic life-was common to all the classical empires and was a continuity through time.15
6824684948Decline of Classical EmpiresAll eventually over extended themselves, declined in political, social, and economic areas, and eventually fell. Internal pressures included: diseases spread by war and by transference along trade routes, peasant revolts against overbearing landlords, resistance to high taxation, a breakdown of imperial authority, failing economies. External pressures came from rival empires, local rebels, and nomadic groups (many were Huns), in Rome these included the Huns, Goths, and Vandals that attacked the Western Roman Empire and capital of the Roman Empire itself.16
6824684949Fall of Han DynastyFell largely because of internal clauses, including struggles for power among the dynastic family members and top generals, as well as the Yellow Turban revolt (internal pressure). Note that as this dynasty fell, many in China converted to Buddhism.17
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AP World History: Ch. 22 The Muslim Empires, Pt. 2 Flashcards

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5908058706Sail al-DinEponymous founder of the Safavids, Sufi mystic; leader of the Red Heads.0
5908058707Red HeadsName given to Safavid followers because of their distinctive red headgear.1
5908058708Ismâ'ilSafavid leader; conquered the city of Tabriz in 1501 and was proclaimed shah.2
5908058709ChaldiranAn important battle between the Safavids and Ottomans in 1514; Ottoman victory demonstrated the importance of firearms and checked the western advance of the Safavid Shi'a state.3
5908058710Abbas I, "The Great"Safavid shah (1587-1629); extended the empire to its greatest extent; used Western military technology.4
5908058711ImamsShi'a religious leaders who traced their descent to Ali's successors.5
5908058712MullahsReligious leaders under the Safavids; worked to convert all subjects to Shi'ism.6
5908058713IsfahanSafavid capital under Abbas the Great; planned city exemplifying Safavid architecture.7
5908058714Nadir Khan AfsharEmerged following fall of Safavids; proclaims himself shah, 1736.8
5908058715BaburTurkic leader who founded the Mughal dynasty; died in 1530.9
5908058716HumaynSon and successor of Babur; expelled from India in 1540 but returned to restore the dynasty in 1556.10
5908058717AkbarSon and successor of Humayn; built up the military and administrative structure of the dynasty; followed policies of cooperation and toleration with the Hindu majority.11
5908058718Din-i-IlahiReligion initiated by Akbar that blended elements of Islam and Hinduism; did not survive his death.12
5908058719AurangzebSon and successor of Shah Jahan; pushed extent of Mughal control in India; reversed previous policies to purify Islam of Hindu influences; incessant warfare depleted the empire's resources; died in 1707.13
5908058720Taj MahalMausoleum for Mumtaz Mahal, built by her husband Shah Jahan; most famous architectural achievement of Mughal India.14
5908058721Nur JahanWife of ruler Jahangir who amassed power at the Mughal court and created a faction ruling the empire during the later years of his reign.15
5908058722Mumtaz MahalWife of Shah Jahan; took an active political role in Mughal court; entombed in Taj Mahal.16
5908058723MarattasPeople of western India; challenged Mughal rule under Aurangzeb.17
5908058724SikhsIndian sect, beginning as a synthesis of Hindu and Muslim faiths; pushed to opposition to Muslim and Mughul rule.18
5986892883SatiThe practice followed by small minorities, usually upper caste, of Indians of burning widows on the funeral pyres of their deceased husbands19
5986905018PurdahThe seclusion of Indian women in their homes20
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