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APHUG SEMESTER 1 STUDY GUIDE

UNIT 1

in large urban factories
zero
300
1825
foot pedals and running water
merchants/commercial companies
coke
coal fields, iron ores, coastal ports
the skill to make the machines that manufactured the products
Rhine River
coalfields, water communication, and ports
high income and low cost
friction of distance is the increase in time and cost with distance
primary
railroads
locational interdependence

Insights

The Third Agricultural Revolution

Kinberg, Nicholas
Michael Chakmakian
AP European History
9 June 2015
Chapter 19 Outline
Globalization/West
Internet, protests against World Trade Organization, outsourcing ofjobs/services, Walmart in Mexico, dismantling of Berlin wall
Attack on World Trade Center in 2001 gaveglobalizationnew meaning
Shattered Americans? sense of isolation/security

Globalization is integration
Process of creating networks; new tech, econ., laws made it faster

Globalization=/=internationalization

87Kinberg, Nicholas
Michael Chakmakian
AP European History
4 June 2015
Chapter 17 Outline
Cold War: Global Politics, Econ. Recovery, Cultural Change
1m?s of Euro refugees trekked100s/1k?s of mi. on foot to return to homes
Housing was nonexistent; 1946, 100m Euros lived on <1.5k cal/day
Fam?s. scraped vegetables from gardens/traded smuggled goods on black market

Gov?t?s rationed food; winter 1946, had no fuel

Coal,

2 powers emerged, US/USSR, dev. Of ?Cold War?
Cold War divided Euro, East occupied by USSR, West by US

Led to political/econ. Integration, resulting in Euro Common Market in West/socialist bloc dominated by USSR inEast

Collapse of empires/creation of nations raised stakes of Cold War

Cold War/Divided Continent
Relations between Allies frayed over power/influence in Central/East Euro
Descended to conflict; US/USSR formed centers of 2 blocs
Cold War pittedcapitalism/communism

Anticolonial movements turned to Soviets for help

Iron Curtain
USSR insisted during negotiations at Tehran, 1943/Yalta, 1945, that it had East Euro
Visiting Moscow in 1944, Churchill/Stalin bargained over spheres of influence, offering?%?s? of countries that were being liberated

Declaration of Principles of Liberated Euro issued at Yalta in 1945 guaranteed elections, Stalin believed Allied co?op. gave him power in East Euro

Stalin?s siege mentality pervaded authoritarian regime/cast everyone as threat

USSR?s losses made it determined to maintain power over liberated lands

USSR used diplo./military to create ?ppl?s. republics? sympathetic to it
States set up coalition gov?t?s that excluded Nazi sympathizers, dominated by commies, 1 partytook hold;1948, Soviets crushed Czechoslovakian coalition gov?t, break with Yalta?s guarantee of elections; gov?t?s dependent on Moscow were est. in Poland, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria; were referred to as East bloc

Yugoslavian commie/resistance leader Marshal Tito fought to keep gov?t indep.
Came to power during war; drew support from Serbs, Croats, Muslims

Moscow charged Yugoslavia was nat?l?ist/expelled it from pacts

USSR demanded purges of satellite gov?t?s; began in Balkans/extended thru Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Poland

Succeeded by playing fears; attacked opponents as Jewish; blamed Jews for war

Greece, war?s end brought commie-led resistance
Brits/Americans kept Greece in sphere; aid to anticommie monarchy prevailed

Civil war lasted <1949 killed more than wartime occupation

Allies divided Germany into 4 zones; Berlin was in Soviet territory, was divided
Occupation zones were intended to be temp., pending on peace settlement

Soviets/French, Brit, Americans quarreled over reparations/econ. Of Germany

Brit/US almost had falling out over food supply/trade in zones

1948, 3 West allies created single gov?t for territories

Passed reforms to ease econ./intro?d. currency

Soviets cut road, train, river access from west to West Berlin, West allies refused tocede capital;11 months, airlifted supplies over USSR to west Berlin, 12k tons of supplies carried by 100s of flights/day;6/1948-5/1949; ended with creation of 2 Germanies: Fed. Republic in west/German Democratic Republic in east

Marshall Plan
1947, speechto Congress arguing for assistance to anticommies in Greece, Pres. Harry Truman set out Truman Doctrine, pledge to support ?free ppl?s.? against communism
Tied politics with econ.; pres. Declared Soviet-American conflict to be choice between ?2 ways of life;? Sec. of State George Marshall outlined aid to Euro including East Euro states: Euro Recovery Program

Provided $13b from 1948-52, targeted to industrial dev.

Supplied American tractors, locomotive engines, food, tech, capital

Encouraged states to diagnose econ./dev. Own solutions

Encouraged coordination in Euro to dissuade France from asking reparations/dismantling German econ.; became building block of Euro unity; required measures such a dectrl. Of prices, restraints on wages, balanced budgets

Encouragedopposition to liberals/movements sympathetic to communism

US shored up military; 4/1949, Canada, US, West Euro signed agreement est. North Atlantic Treaty Organization;Greece, Turkey, West Germany were added
Attack against NATO member would be regarded asattack on all

Est. joint military command in 1950, Dwight Eisenhower, wartime commander of Allies in West, senior military officer

Began with 30 divisions in 1950, 1953, 60, including 12 from West Germany

West German rearmament was debated in Brit/France,American pressure/strat. Led to acceptance;the Westmeant anticommunism

NATO?s prep?s. for another Euro war depended on air, jet bombers would field nuke

2 World/Bomb
USSR est. East Euro Council for Mutual Econ. Assistance, Comecon
1947, organized internat?l political arm, Cominform (Commie Info Bureau), responsible for coordinating commie policy/programs

Est. military alliances, Warsaw Pact, 1955

Set up joint command among Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, East Germany, guaranteed presence of Soviets in all

1949, USSR tested nuke; 1953, US/USSR demo?d. hydrogen (?super?) bomb, 1k times more powerful than bomb dropped on Hiroshima
Dev?d. smaller bombs/systems to delivery; intercontinental missiles were built that could field 1st1/severalnukes, fired from land/atomic-powered submarines

Nuclearization made it difficult to avoid joining US/USSR pacts

Encouraged disparity between superpowers/nations reliant on them

Encouraged ?proxy wars? between clients/rose fears of greater war

H-bomb, leaps in knowledge that it rep?d. boosted confidence in science

1946, George Kennan argued US needed to contain USSR

USSR, writers/artists were attacked for deviation from party
Disciplined econ?ists. For suggesting West Euro industry might recover

Radio blared news that Czech/Hungarian leaders were traitors

US, congressional committees launched campaigns to root out ?commies?

Cold War brought air-raid drills, spy trials, warnings that way of life was at stake, appeals to def. fam.

Khrushchev/Thaw
Stalin died in 1953; Nikita Khrushchev became leader in 1956
Possessed directness, eased tensions; Stalin secluded himself in Kremlin;Khrushchev traveled thruout world

Visit to US in 1959, quipped with Iowa farmers/entertained at Disneyland

Switched between anti-American rhetoric/diplo.

Agreed to summit meeting with leaders of Brit, France, US

Led to understandings that eased frictions/banned nuke testing above ground in 60s

1957, Boris Pasternak?s novelDoctor Zhivagocouldn?t be pub. In USSR, barred from receiving Nobel Prize;Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn?s 1stnovel,One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich, pub.; in 1962, marked cultural freedom of thaw
Based on Solzhenitsyn?s exp. In camps, spent 8 yrs. For criticizing Stalin in letter, lit. testimony to repressionKhrushchev acknowledged

1964, Khrushchev fell/thaw ended, driving criticism/writers such as Solzhenitsyn underground;The First Circle, 1968, autobio., told of imprisoned scientists doing research for secret police;Solzhenitsyn worked onThe Gulag Archipelago, 1sthistorical/lit. study of Stalinist camps (gulags); collected memoirs/testimony from prisoners, kept notes on cigarette rolling papers, buried drafts of ch?s. behind house

USSR secret police found copy of manuscript in taxicab; book was pub. In 1973in Paris, 1974, USSR arrested Solzhenitsyn on treason/exiled him

USSR dissident, idealist/moralist, roots in 19thRussian authors/philosophers; exiled, attacked corruptions of American commercialism/USSR repressiveness

Repression in East Euro
1954, tensions exploded in East Euro
East German gov?t, burdened by reparations payments to USSR, faced econ. Crisis

Gov?t?s awareness of West German econ. Success made it worse

Exodus of East German citizens to West rose: 58k left in 3/1953

6/1953, gov?t demanded increases in productivity, strikes broke in East Berlin

Unrest spread thruout country; Soviets put it down, 100s executed

East Germany under Walter Ulbricht used disorder to solidify 1-party rule

1956, Poland/Hungary rebelled, demanding more indep.; strikers led opposition in Poland; gov?t wavered, responding with military repression/promise of liberalization
Anti-Stalinist Polish leader Wladyslaw Gomulka won Soviet permission for country to pursue own ?Socialist dev.? By pledging Poland to Warsaw Pact

Leader of Hungary?s commie gov?t Imre Nagy, nat?l?ist
Protests against Moscow dev?d. into anticommie struggle, attempted secession from Warsaw Pact; 11/4/1956, Soviets occupied Budapest, arresting leaders of rebellion

Hungarians fought back, fighting cont?d. for weeks

Hoped for West aid, Dwight Eisenhower ignored;Soviets installed gov?t under commie Janos Kadar, repression cont?d., 10k?s of Hungarians fled to West

Khrushchev?s policy ?peaceful coexistence? with West didn?t reduce repression
50s, NATO?s policy of putting nukes in West Germany was evidence

East Germans fled country via West Berlin; 1949-71, 2.7m East Germans left

Khrushchev demanded West recognize division of Germany with free city in Berlin

Refused, 1961, East Germany built 10-ft. wall separating 2 cities

Soviets/Americans mobilized reservists for war

American pres. John F. Kennedy, marked Berlin?s status with visit when he proclaimed ?all free men? were citizens of West Berlin;<1989, Berlin Wallstayed

Econ. Renaissance
Resulted from war,encouraged tech: improved comm?s., dev. Of synthetic materials, aluminum/alloy steels, advances in prefabrication
Wartime manufacturing added to productive capacity; Marshall Plan solved balance of payments/shortage of American $s to buy American goods
Boom was fueled by consumer demand/employment thruout 50s/60s

Domestic/foreign consumption encouraged expo., investment, tech

Demand for Euro?s goods hastened agreements that encouraged trade/currencies

West Germany provided tax breaks to encourage investment; Brit/Italy offered investment allowances to steel/petroleum industries
France, Brit, Italy, Austria nat?l?ized industry/services to raise productivity

Result was ?mixed? econ?s. combo?ing. Public/private ownership

France, public ownership was advanced in30s, RRs, electricity, gas, banking, radio, TV, car industry were brought under state management

Brit, coal/utilities, road, RR, air transport, banking were state-managed

RR, electrical, chem., metallurgical concerns, Volkswagen company were all state-managed, last was returned to private in 1963

Gov?t policies/programs contributed to growth rates
1945-63, yr?ly. Growth of West Germany?s gross domestic product was 7.6%; Austria, 5.8%, Italy 6%, Netherlands, 4.7%

Reversed prewar econ. Of slack demand,overproduction, insufficient investment

Production facilities were pressed to keep up with demand

West Germany, production increased 6-fold, 1948-64
Unemployment reached 0.4% in 1965, 6 jobs per every unemployed person

Prices rose/lvl?d. off, citizens could plunge buying that caused production to soar

50s, state/private industry built 500k houses/yr., accommodate citizens whose homes were destroyed, refugees from East Germany/East Euro, workers from Italy, Spain, Greece, drawn by West Germany?s demand for labor

German cars, mechanical goods, optics, chem?s. lead world market

West German women were included: 50s, German politicians encouraged women totake up ?citizen consumers,? buyers of goods

Jean Monnet, French gov?t played role in industrial reform, contributing capital/advice, facilitating shifts in labor pool to place workers where they were needed
Gave priority to basic industries; production of electricity doubled, steel industry was modernized, French RR became fastest on Continent

Italy; stimulatedby capital from gov?t/Marshall Plan, companies competed with Euro giants; products Olivetti Fiat, Pirelli came in houses around world; electricity production doubled between 1938/53; 1954, wages were 50% higher than in 1938

South Italy, illit. Was hi./landwas held by rich fam?s.; per capita GNP in Sweden was 10 times Turkey; Brit, Conservative PM Harold Macmillan campaigned for reelection in 1959 with slogan ?You?ve never had it so good?
Brit econ. Was sluggish; country was burdened with obsoletefactories/methods

Plagued by balance-of-payments crises precipitated by trade deficit

Euro Econ. Integration
Internat?l econ. Organizations bound West Euro countries
1stwas Euro Coal/Steel Community, founded in 1951 to coordinate trade in Euro?s resources; coal was king; fueled steel manufacturing/trains/heating/counted for 82% of nrg consumption; key to relations between West Germany, with coal mines, France, coal-hungry steel mills; ECSC joint Hi. Authority, consisted of experts, power to regulate prices,increase/limit production, impose admin. Fees

1957, Treaty of Rome transformed France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, Holland, Luxembourg into Euro Econ. Community (Common Market)

EEC abolished traded barriers; pledged itself to external tariffs, movementof labor/capital, building wage structures/social security to create working conditions

HQ?d. in Brussels/admin?d. program; 1962, Brussels had 3k+ ?Eurocrats?

Brit stayed away, fearing ECSC on declining coal industry/trade with Aussie, New Zealand, Canada
Didn?t share France?s need for materials/others? need for markets, relied on Empire

Domestic opposition to EEC on wages/agricultural prices threatened agreements

French insisted on protecting agriculture, sensitive to peasantry

Shifts that made oil/atomicpower more sig. than coal made ECSC less effective
1963, EEC became largest importer

Steel production was 2ndto US, industrial production was 70% higher than 1950

Countries sought to Europeanize solutions to problems

Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, 7/1944 aimed to coordinate movements of econ./internat?l?ize solutions to econ.; created Internat?l Monetary Fund/World Bank, designed to est. exchange rates, prevent speculation, enable currencies/trade to move
Currencies were pegged to $; internat?l system was formed with US-Euro sphere in mind, organizations played role in econ. Dev. Of 3rdWorld

Econ. Dev. In East
Incomes rose/output increased
Poland/Hungary strengthened econ. With West, with France/West Germany

70s, 30% of East Euro?s trade was conducted outside Soviet bloc

USSR required satellites to design econ. Policies to serve more than own interests

Regulations gov?ing. Comecon ensured USSR could sell exports at prices above world lvl./compelled members to trade with USSR; emphasis was on heavyindustry/collectivized agriculture, tension in Hungary/Poland forced Soviets to moderate policies to permit manufacture of consumer goods/dev. Of trade with West

Welfare State
Econ. Expo. Allowed Euro to fund social programs, commitments to putting democracyon stronger footing provided motivation
Clement Atlee, socialist/leader of Brit Labour party, coined termwelfare state; gov?t, in power <1951, enacted legislation that provided free medical care thru Nat?l Health Service, assistance to fam?s., guaranteed secondary edu.

Rested on assumption that gov?t?s could support purchasing power, generate demand, provide employment/unemployment insurance, spelled out by John Maynard Keynes/William Beveridge?s 1943 report on full employment

Brit Labourparty/continental socialist parties pressed, welfare was backed by moderate coalitions that gov?d. West Euro; welfare was entitlement

Euro Politics
Konrad Adenauer, West German chancellor from 1949-63, despised militarism/blamed tradition for Hitler?s power
Apprehensive about German democracy/gov?d. in paternalistic manner

Determination to end hostility between France/Germany contributed to econ. Union

Alcide De Gasperi, Italian premier from 1948-53, centrist

Resistance hero Gen. Charles de Gaulle; retiredfrom politics in 1946 when French refused to accept proposals for strengthening exec. Of gov?t

1958, civil turmoil caused by Algerian war/abortive coup attempt by right-wing army officers, France?s gov?t collapsed/de Gaulle was invited

Accepted/insisted onnew constitution; created 5threpublic in 1958, strengthened exec. To avoid parliamentary deadlocks; restored France?s power/prestige; involved reorienting foreign policy, included end to France?s grip on Algeria

Pulled French out NATO in 1966; cultivatedbetter relations with USSR/West Germany; accel?d. French econ. Expo. By building military with nukes

Steered centrist/undermined radicalism

Revolution, Anticolonialism, Cold War
Chinese Revolution
Civil war raged in China >1926, Mao Zedong?s commies in north in revolt against Nat?l?ists of Jiang Jeishi; agreed on truce to face Japanese, civil war resumed after Japanese defeat, 1949, Mao took ctrl. Of China/exiled Nat?l?ists

Was peasant revolution; Mao adapted Marxism, emphasizing reform in countryside, reducing rents, providing healthcare/edu., reforming marriage/autonomy from West colonial powers; leaders of revolution turned China into industrial nation

?Loss of China? provoked fear in West, especially US
Mao/Stalin distrusted each other, Us considered bothtogether <70s

Korean War
Korea, Japanese colony >1890s, exploited; USSR forced Japanese out during WW2, peninsula was divided into 2 states: commie North Korea, run by Soviet client Kim Il Sung, South Korea, led by anticommie autocrat Syngman Rhee, backedby US
6/1950, North Koreans attacked, crushing resistance/forcing Americans to sea

US took advantage of Russian boycott of UN to bring invasion before Security Council, gave permission for American-led ?police action? to def. South Korea

US gen. Douglas MacArthur, WW2 hero, attacked behind North Korean lines/drove them to Chinese border
Pressed for authority attack them as they retreated, hoping to get Chinese commies

Pres. Harry Truman denied/relieved MacArthur of command; 1m+ Chinese supported North Koreans, forcing retreat; gen. Matthew Ridgeway stemmed retreat, war became stalemate, pitting Chinese/North Koreans against UN, American/South Koreans/Brits/Aussies/Ethiopians/Netherlanders/Turkey;1953, war ended, Korea divided along original line; 53k Americans/1m Koreans/Chinese dead

Decolonization
1947-60, Euro empires disintegrated
Opposition to colonial rule stiffened after WW1, forcing Euro to renegotiate empire

>WW2, empire became untenable; Euro sought to cut losses/withdraw

Nat?l?ist movements demandedconstitutional arrangements/indep.

Euro was also drawn into struggles

Brit Empire Unravels
India was 1st/largest of colonies to win indep.
WW2, Indian Nat?l Congress, umbrella party for indep. Movement, called on Brit to ?quit India;?Indian nat?l?ist Mohandas K. Gandhi was at work in Indian since 20s/pioneered anticolonial ideas

Advocatedswaraj, self-rule, urging Indians to dev. Own resources/withdraw from imperial econ., by going on strike, refusing to pay taxes, boycotting imported textiles

1947, Gandhi/Jawaharlal Nehru, leader of proindep. Congress party, gained support, Brit couldn?t cont.;Labour party elected in Brit in 1945 favored Indian indep.

India was torn by ethnic/religious conflict
Muslim League, led by Mohammed Ali Jinnah, wanted autonomy in Muslim areas/feared Hindu Congress party?s authority in 1 state

Rioting broke; 6/1947, Brit India was partitioned into nations India (Hindu)/Pakistan (Muslim); brought religious/ethnic war

1m+ Hindus/Muslims died, 12m became refugees

Gandhi protestedviolence/overcame colonialism

1/1948, was assassinated by Hindu zealot; conflict cont?d. between India/Pakistan

Nehru, 1stPM of India, embarked on industrialization; was nonaligned with Cold War blocs, getting aid for industry from USSR/food imports fromUS

Palestine
1948, end to Brit mandate in Palestine

WW1, Brit diplo?s. encouraged Arab nat?l?ist revolts against Ottomans

1917 Balfour Declaration, promised ?Jew homeland? in Palestine for Euro Zionists

Contradictory promises/flight of Euro Jews from NaziGermany contributed to conflict between Jews/Arabs in Palestine during 30s/provoked Arab revolt suppressed by Brits; oil concessions in Middle East were multiplying Brit?s interests in Suez Canal, Egypt, Arab nations;1939, Brit limited Jew immigration; maintained it >WW2, faced pressure from 10k?s of Jews from Euro

Became 3-way war: Palestinian Arabs fighting for indep., Jews/Zionist militants defying Brit restrictions, Brit admin?s. with divided sympathies

1947, 1 Brit soldier for every 18 inhabitants of Mandate

Terrorism persuaded Brit to leave;UN voted to partition territory into 2 states

Neither Jews/Palestinian Arabs found this satisfactory/cont?d. fighting

Israel declared indep. In 5/1948, 5 neighboring states invaded

Israel survived/extended boundaries

Losers: 1m Palestinian Arabs who fled/expelled/clustered in refugee camps in Gaza Strip/West Bank of Jordan River, armistice granted enlarged state of Jordan

USSR/US recognized Israel

Africa
West African colonies est. indep. Movements <50s/Brits met demands

50s, Brit agreed to indep., leaving them with constitutions/Brit legal system

Def?ers. Of colonialism claimed institutions would give advantages to indep. States, without resources, all foundered

Ghana, known as Gold Coast/1stof colonies to gain indep., model in 60s for Africa

Politics degenerated, pres. Kwame Nkrumah became 1stAfrican leader driven out of office by corruption/autocratic behav.

Belgium/France withdrew; 1965, African colonies became indep., couldn?t work
Belgium left Congo in 1960, leftcrumbling RRs/<24 natives with college edu.

Decolonization was peaceful, except where Euro settlers complicated withdrawal
North, settler resistance made French exit from Algeria complex

East, Kenya, Kikuyu pop. Revolted against Brits/settlers

Known asMau Mau rebellion; Brits fought back, killing civilians

Internment camps set up by colonial security became sites of atrocities that drew investigations/condemnation by conservative Brit politicians/army officers

1953-63, Brit conceded Kenyan indep.

50s, Brit PM Harold Macmillan endorsed indep. In Brit?s Africa colonies
South Africa, Euros resisted for decades;English migrants/Franco-Dutch Afrikaners who traced arrival to 18th, ctrl?d. farmland/gold/diamond mines

40s, Brit?s Labour gov?t set aside dislike of Afrikaner racism in bargain

For guarantees that South African gold would be used to support Brit?s financial power, Brit tolerated apartheid in South Africa

Africans, Indians, colored persons of mixed descent lost rights

All institutions of life, including marriage/schools, were segregated

Gov?t blocked social consequences of mining/industrialization, especially African migration to cities/labor militancy in mines

Apartheid required Africans to live in ?homelands,? forbade them to travel without permits,created gov?t bureaus to manage labor

Gov?t banned protest; made West uncomfortable, white South Africans held on to US support by being bulwark against communism

North, territories Rhodesia, Brit encouraged federation, ctrl?d. by whitesettlers/opportunity for majority rule;60s, fed. Was on verge of collapse, majority-rule state Malawi exited fed. In 1964/Rhodesia split in north/south lines
North, premier accepted majority gov?t under black populist Kenneth Kaunda

South, Afrikaners backed by 200k right-wing English migrants who arrived >1945 refused to accept majority rule;Brits used forced, settlers declared indep. In 1965/began civil war against south Rhodesia?s black pop. That lasted <1975

Crisis in Suez/End of Era
>1945, Brit Empire cost too much

Withdrew from naval/air bases; Labour gov?t maintained power; Malaya, Brits repressed revolt by Chinese commies/supported indep. States Singapore/Malaysia, maintaining Brits companies?/banks? ties with Malaysia?s rubber/oil reserves

Labour launched ?colonial dev.? To tap resources

Underfunded/regarded in favor of Cold War;Middle East, Brits protected oil-rich states/overthrew nat?l?ist gov?t in Iran to ensure oil states invested $ in Brit markets

Egypt, Brit refused to yield; 1951, nat?l?istscompelled Brits to withdraw from Egyptian territory <1954
1952, nat?l?ist army officers deposed Egypt?s King Farouk, who had ties to Brit, proclaimed republic; after Brit withdrawal, Egyptian col. Gamal Abdel Nasser became pres. Of country;1stact was to nat?l?ize Suez Canal Company

Would finance construction of Aswan Dam on Nile, dam/nat?l?izing canal rep?d. econ. Indep./Egyptian pride

Nasser dev?d. anticolonial ideology pan-Arabism, proposing Arab nat?l?ists thruout Islam create alliance of modern nationswithout West; was supported by Soviets

Israel, surrounded by unfriendly neighbors, looking for opportunity to seize SinaiPeninsula/create buffer against Egypt
France, fighting Algerian nat?l?ists, hoped to destroy Egyptian Arab nat?l?ism

Brit depended oncanal as route to bases; Brits were urged by PM Sir Anthony Eden; Eden dev?d. hatred of Nasser; fall 1956, 3 nations attacked Egypt; Israel occupied Sinai/Brit/French jets destroyed Egypt?s air force

Landed troops at mouth of canal/lacked resources to pushto Cairo

War left Nasser in power/made him hero to Egyptian public

Attack was condemned; US inflicted financial penalties on Brit/France

Were forced to withdraw

French Decolonization
Indochina, French efforts to restore authority after losing WW2 resultedin defeat
Algeria, struggle with problems at home

1stVietnam War, 1946-54
Indochina was last French acquisition of 19th

WW1/2 galvanized nat?l?ist/commie indep. Movements;Indonesia, nat?l?ists rebelled against Dutch efforts to restore colonialism, becameindep. In 1949

Indochina, commie resistance became effective under Ho Chi Minh

Was French edu?d./expectations raised by Wilsonian principles of self-determination, hoped country might win indep. At Versailles in 1919

Read Marx/Lenin/absorbed Chinese commies? lessons about organizing peasants around social/agrarian/nat?l issues

WW2, movement fought Vichy gov?t of colony/Japanese/provided intel. For Allies

1945, US/Brit allowed French to reclaim colonies thruout Southeast Asia

Vietnamese commies, nat?l?ists/Marxists, renewed guerrilla war against French

France saw chance to redeem pride
Gen. Jean de Lattre de Tassigny achieved advantage against rebels in 1951, France pressed victory, sending troops to root out rebels

1 base was est. in valley bordering modernLaos, called Dien Bien Phu

Ringed by mts., spot became base for 1k?s of French paratroopers/colonial soldiers from Algeria/West Africa; rebels besieged base;10k?s of Vietnamesehauled artillery up mt-sides./bombarded forts; lasted months, becoming crisis in France

Dien Bien Phu fell in 4/1954, France began peace takes in Geneva
Geneva Accords, drawn by French, Vietnamese politicians including commies, Brits, Americans, divided Indochina into Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, partitioned 2 states

NorthVietnam was under Ho Chi Minh?s party; South Vietnam by succession of West-supported politicians

Corruption, repression, instability in south with Ho Chi Minh?s desire to unite Vietnam guaranteed war;US provided aid to France, sent aid to South Vietnam

Americans wanted to stop communism from spreading in Southeast Asia

Algeria
1830s, colony evolved into settler society of 3 groups

Addition to French soldiers/admin?s., 1m Euro settlers

Owned farms/vineyards near cities, formed working-class/merchant communities inside cities; were citizens of 3 admin. Districts in Algeria

Community produced France?s writers/intel?s.: Albert Camus, Jacque Derrida, Pierre Bourdieu; towns/villages, groups called Berbers, Muslim, history of service to France entitled them to privileges; were 1m?s of Muslim Arabs, living in desert south/crowded in impoverished neighborhoods in cities

1919-39, France offered reforms to increase rights/rep., hoped to meld 3 groups

Came too late/undercut by Euro settlers wanting to maintain privileges

1945, Algerian nat?l?ists called on Allies to recognize indep. For service in war
Public demo?s. turned into attacks on settlers

Rural town Setif, celebrations of defeat of Germany flared into violence

French repression: security forces killed 1k?s of Arabs

France approved provincial assembly for Algeria, elected by 2 pools of voters, 1 made of settlers/Berber Muslims, other Arabs

Gave Arab Algerians no power; Algeria suffered >1945

Arab Algerians emigrated; 100k?s worked in France

50s, Arab activists,unhappy with moderates, took charge of movement

Nat?l Liberation Front was organized, leaned socialist/demanded =ity

War in Algeria came in 3 parts
1stwas guerrilla war between French/FLN, fought in mts./deserts

Cont?d. for yr?s., defeat for FLN/indecisive for Fench

2ndwar, fought in cities, began with FLN bombing/terrorism

Euros were killed, France retaliated; paratroopers hunted FLN bombers

Info that allowed France to break FLN was extracted thru torture

Became internat?l scandal, bringing protest in France

3rdfront divided France, brought down gov?t, ushered de Gaulle in

De Gaulle visited Algiers/declared Algeria French
60s, changed mind; 1962, talks produced indep.: referendum would be held, voted on by all of Algeria

7/1/1962, passed with landslide;Arab groups/guerrillas form FLN entered Algiers

Settlers/Berbers who fought for French fled Algeria for France by 100k?s

Refugees were joined in France by Arab econ. Migrants

Postwar Culture/Thought
Writers/artists took up freedom, civilization, human condition
Search for democracy gave lit. urgency; moral dilemmas of war, occupation, resistance gave it resonance; decolonization forced issues of race, culture, colonialism to center

Black Presence
JournalPresence Africaine(African Presence), founded in Parisin 1947
Pub. Writers such as Aime Cesaire, surrealist poet from Martinique, Leopold Senghor of Senegal

Cesaire/Senghor wree students, edu?d. in French uni?s., elected to French Nat?l Assembly; Cesaire became politician in Martinique, French Caribbean colony that became dep. Of France of 1946;1960, Senghor was elected 1stpres. Of Senegal

Both became exponents ofNegritude, ?black consciousness?/?black pride?

Cesaire?s work took from surrealism/exploration of consciousness

Became political;Discourse onColonialism(1950) was indictment of squalor of colonialism which dehumanized subjects/degraded colonizers

Cesaire?s student Frantz Fanon, from Martinique; argued withdrawing into black culture wasn?t good response to racism; POCneeded social change; trained in psych./worked in Algeria, became member of Nat?l Liberation Front
Black Skin, White Masks(1952), examined effects of colonialism/racism from psychiatrist;The Wretched of the Earth(1961) became manifesto

Rejected Ghandhi?s theories/practice, argued violence was rooted in colonialism/anticolonial movements

Believed anticolonial leaders would be corrupted by ambition/collab. With rulers

Revolution could come only from peasants

West intel?s. sought to revive humanism/democracy
Fanon pt?d. outstruggles over colonialism made project difficult; repression ofanticolonial movements in Algeria relapsed brutality; pt?d. to ironies of Euro?s ?civilizing mission?/demanded reevaluation of blackness as concept in West

Existentialism
French existentialist writers, Jean-Paul Sartre/Albert Camus put themes of individuality, commitment, choice at center
Existentialists took themes from Nietzsche, Heidegger, Kierkegaard, reworking them in war-torn Euro; start was ?existence precedes essence;? meaning in life is created

Individuals were ?condemned to be free?/give lives meaning by making choices/accepting responsibility; to deny freedom was to act in ?bad faith?

War, collab./resistance, genocide, weapons provided pts. Of reference/gave abstractions new meaning; existentialists? writing was clear, contributed torise

Sartre wrote philosophical treaties, pub. Plays/short stories

Camus? exp. In resistance gave him moral authority, symbol of new generation

Novels, includingThe Stranger(1942),The Plague(1947),The Fall(1956) revolved around metaphors for war, showing that ppl. Were responsible for dilemmas/thru antiheroes, exploring ability of ppl. To help each other

Existentialist approach to race emphasized no meaning inhered in skin color; race derived meaning from exp.
Intro. ToThe Second Sex(1949), Simone de Beauvoir argued that women aren?t born women, they become women; women were condemned to be free; Beauvoir asked why women accepted secondary status

Book was analyzing history, myth, bio., psych., bringing insights of Marx/Freud on ?woman Q;?Beauvoir?s life contributed to book?s hi. Profile

Student from middle-class, had affair with Sartre/didn?t marry him, leading to ppl. Romanticizing her as liberated/accomplished woman intel.

Didn?t work withfeminism <60s

The Second Sexpub., associated with existentialism, later became part of feminism

Memory/Amnesia: Aftermath of War
Theme of helplessness in state power ran thru works, beginning with George Orwell?sAnimal Farm(1946)/1984(1949)
American Joseph Heller?sCatch-22(1961) rep?d. existentialism, concerned with absurdity of war/commenting on regimentation/toll on freedom;Czech author Milan Kundera, fled Czech gov?t to live in Paris, captured efforts to resist bureaucracy

Writers expressed despairby escaping into absurd/fantastic

Samuel Beckett?sWaiting for Godot(1953)/Brit Harold Pinter?sCaretaker(1960)/Homecoming(1965) nothing happens

Char?s. speak in banalities, paralyzed by absurdity of modern times

Authors ventured into hallucination,sci-fi., fantasy
Novels of Americans William Burroughs/Kurt Vonnegut carry readers from fantasies to space;The Lord of the Rings(1954-5) by Brit J. R. R. Tolkien

Set in fantasy world Middle Earth, tribute to Celtic/Scandinavian lang?s. he studied/myths seized by young romantics who rebelled against postwar West culture

Q?s of terror/dictatorship haunted postwar era, especially work of emigres from Euro
Rep?s. of ?Frankfurt school? of German Marxism, by wartime refugees in US, sought to understand how fascism/Nazism grew

Theodor Adorno joined Max Horkheimer in essaysDialectic of Enlightenment(1947), best known indicted ?culture industry? for depoliticizing masses/crippling democracy; Adorno authoredThe Authoritarian Personality(1950), used social surveys to discover how ppl. Become racist, prejudiced, dictatorial

Hannah Arendt, Jew refugee from Germany, 1stto propose Nazism/Stalinism should beunderstood as 20thform of gov?t: totalitarianism (The Origins of Totalitarianism, 1951)
Totalitarianism workedby mobilizing support

Used terror to crush resistance, break down political institutions, atomize public

Forged new ideologies; didn?t concern itself with whether killing was justified; justified camps/extermination by pt?ing. To history/racial struggle; by unleashing destruction/eliminating pop?s., totalitarianism made resistance impossible; Arendt returned to this in essay on trial of Nazi leaderEichmann in Jerusalem(1963)

Refused to demonize Nazism; explored ?banality of evil:? how rise of state power/terror created world where genocide was just another policy

Totalitarianism was moral collapse of society, destroyed feeling/power of resistance in executioners/victims

Memoirs/novels dealing with war/aftermath were popular: Jerzy Kosinski?s novel about boy in wartime Poland,The Painted Bird; Czeslaw Milosz?s memoir of intel. Collab. In East Euro,The Captive Mind(1951); German Gunter Grass?Tin Drum(1959), portrayed Nazi/war exp. In autobio. Genre/earned Grass recognition of ?conscience of generation?
The Diary of a Young Girlby Anne Frank, pub. In 1947, most popular

Postwar culture repressed painful issues

Gov?t?s couldn?t purge those implicated in war crimes

France, courts sentenced 2,640 to death/executed 791; Austria, 13k were convicted of warcrimes/30 executed; those who called for justice grew demoralized/cynical

Others mythologized Resistance/exaggerated participation/avoided discussion of collab; 10 yrs., French TV consideredThe Sorrow and the Pity(1969), Marcel Ophuls? doc. Of French townunder Vichy, too controversial to broadcast

Jew survivors found few editors were interested in pub?ing. Stories

1947, small pub?ing. House would take Italian survivor Primo Levi?sSurvival inAuschwitz; book/other works didn?t find wide audience

Cold Wardistorted memories
West, eagerness to embrace West Germany, emphasis on econ., anticommunism blurred past;Klaus Barbie, agent for Gestapo in occupied France who arrested/tortured Resistance/deported 1k?s;American intel. Services recruited Barbie for anticommie skills/paid to smuggle him out of Euro; extradited from Bolivia in 1983, tried in France for crimes against humanity, convicted

East, regimes declared fascism to be past/didn?t scrutinize collab?s. with Nazis

Reckoning with history was postponed >1991

Cuban Missile Crisis
1962, Cuba; revolution in 1958 brought commie Fidel Castro to power
US worked with exiled Cubans, invading Cuba via Bay of Pigs in 1961
Castro aligned himself with Soviets/invited them to base nukes

American spy lanes ID?d. nukes in1962, Kennedy confronted Khrushchev

Kennedy ordered naval blockade of Cuba; 10/22/1962, appeared on TV, announced situation to public, challenged Khrushchev to withdraw weapons

Americans fled urban areas; 3 wks., Soviets agreed to withdraw bombers/nukes

Cuban missile crisis provided inspiration for Stanley Kubrick?sDr. Strangelove(1964), comedy with Cold War themes; concerns ?accidental? nuke attack
Concerns repression of memory/reversals of alliances brought by Cold War

German scientist Dr. Strangelove shuttled between present working for Americans/past as follower of Hitler; screenplay was based on Brit writer Peter Bryant?sTwo Hours to Doom(1958), 50s novel with apocalyptic scenario

Black humor was mechanism for dealing with world annihilation

Protagonist of Bob Dylan?s 1963 ?Talkin? World War III Blues? narrates dream inwhich he drives abandoned Cadillac, approaches bunker for TV dinner, lights cigarette on radioactive parking meter

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