Premium Content
Kinberg, Nicholas
Michael Chakmakian
AP European History
31 May 2015
Chapter 15 Outline
Turmoil Between Wars
WW1 took 9m/destroyed Euro confidence
Euros in interwar yrs. Wantedsocialism/commie, turned to extremisms on right
Result in 20s was collapse of democracy; 30s, few democracies remained
Brit, France, US, regimes were frayed by challenges
Cause of democracy?s decline was econ., caused by WW1/Great Depression of 1929-33
Layin social conflict, exacerbated by war; electorate rallied to extremist parties that promised transformations of nations
Nat?l?ism was source of discontent, Italy/Germany, nat?l?ism turned against gov?t?s
Authoritarian dictatorships in USSR, Italy, Germany; citizens were persuaded that drastic measures could bring order; elimination of parliament, restrictions on freedom, repression were implemented with violence, intimidation, propaganda
USSR Under Lenin/Stalin
Russian Civil War
Bolsheviks seized power in10/1917; signed peace with Germany in 3/1918
Oct. Revolution/withdrawing from war divided Russia
?Whites,? Bolsheviks? opponents wanted to remove ?Reds? from power
Force came from supporters of old regime, including tsarist military officers, reactionary monarchists, nobility, liberals
Joined by supporters of provisional gov?t, Mensheviks, Social Revolutionaries,anarchist peasant bands known as ?Greens? who opposed central power
Bolsheviks faced insurrections from nat?l?mist movements in Ukraine, Georgia,north Caucasus
US, Brit, Japan intervened; heightened Bolshevik mistrust of capitalism
Bolsheviks won because they gained more support because of organization
Leon Trotsky, revolutionary hero of 1905/17, became commissar of war/created military machine that grew to 5m by 1920
Red Army triumphed over Whites in 1920, fighting cont?d. until 1922
Invaded Poland/reached Warsaw/were repelled
Country suffered 1m casualties, 1m?s of deaths from hunger/disease, 100k-300k executions as part of Red/White terror
Leninexpected to create state-capitalism system that resembled Euro wartime econ?s.
Took ctrl. Of industry/banking/allowing small private econ., including agriculture
Civil war pushed gov?t toward radical econ. Known as ?war communism?
Bolsheviks requisitionedgrain from peasantry, outlawed private trade in consumer goods as ?speculation,? militarized production facilities, abolished $
Believed that war communism would replace capitalism that collapsed in 1917
War communism sustained military, disrupted econ.
Civil war devastated Russian industry/emptied cities
Pop. Of Moscow fell 50% from 1917-20
Urban workers went back to country, industrial output 1920-1 fell to 20% of <1917
Peasants benefited from revolution whey they seized noble lands
Agricultural system was disrupted by civil war, grain requisitioning/outlawing of private trade in grain; famine resulted in 1921/claimed 5m
NEP Per.
Bolsheviks abandoned war communism/3/1921, embarked on New Econ. Policy
Reverted to state capitalism; state ownedindustry/individuals owned private prop., traded freely, farmed land to own benefit; fixed taxes on peasantry replaced grain requisitioning; what peasants grew beyond tax requirements was theirs
Bolshevik ID?d. with NEP was Nikolai Bukharin, Marxist theoretician who argued that Bolsheviks could industrialize USSR by taxing private peasant econ.
NEP was successful in allowing USSR agriculture to recover; 1924, harvests returned to >1917 lvls.; peasants were left alone, redivided noble lands to lvl. Wealth discrepancies, reinforcing social structures in country, producing grain to feed country, used primitive farming methods
Didn?t encourage peasants to participate in markets to benefit urban areas
Result was shortages in grain deliveries to cities, promptedBolsheviks to call for revival of war communism
Stalin/?Revolution from Above?
Stalin?s success was rooted in intraparty conflicts in 20s, tied to end of NEP in late 20s/beginning of modernization
?Revolution from above? was quickest in history, killed many
Stalin was Bolshevik from Caucasus nation Georgia
Name was Iosep Jughashvili; received edu. In Orthodox seminary, participated in revolutionary activity in Caucasus/was Siberian exile before revolution
Was sig. during Russian Revolution, wasn?t central
Civil war hero Leon Trotsky was assumed to be candidate to succeed Lenin in 1924
Stalin was political strat?ist.; sidelines opponents by isolating them
Trotsky was 1st, driven out by Stalin/others who feared Trotsky?s desire to take ctrl.
Stalin removed allies, culminating in removal of Bukharin from Politburo in 1928-9
Campaign against Bukharin was connected to desire to discard NEP/launch industrialization drive
20s, Stalin believed USSR couldn?t industrialize by relying on taxes from peasants
Pushed for industrialization in 1927, prompted by falling behind West/war
1927, poor harvest caused crisis in grain-collection system
Low prices for agricultural goods/hi. Prices for industrial goods led peasants to hoard grain, resulting in shortages in cities/difficulties in collecting taxes
1928, Stalin ordered officials in Urals/Siberian areas to requisition grain
Applied war communism to entire country; 1929, upper party reversed NEP/embarked on collectivization of agriculture
Peasants were to be convinced to giveup farmlands
Would join collective farms, pooling resources/giving harvest to state, or work in state farms, where they would be paid as laborers
Collectivization
Was expected to be gradual, 1929, Stalin embarked
Politburo used force against peasants whoresisted
Party/police forced peasants to give up land, farming implements, livestock to join collective farms; peasants resisted; were 1.6k rebellions in USSR between 1929/33, involved 1k?s/quelling them required military, including artillery
Peasants fought by slaughtering livestock;Stalin halted in 1930, ordered process to proceed gradually, 1935, collectivization was complete
Stalin attacked peasants designated askulaks
1929-33, 1.5m peasants were uprooted, dispossessed of prop., resettled on farm to USSR east/north/poor farmland closer to home
Land was distributed to collective farms/officials/peasants in liquidation process
Produced most devastating famine in Euro history; peasants had no incentive to produce extra food, exiling peasants weakened agriculture
1932-3, famine spread across south of USSR
1933 famine cost 3m-5m; Bolsheviks maintained grain reserves, enough to save 100k?s, refused to send it to affected areas, preferring to seal off famine-stricken regions
Grain reserves were sold for currency/stockpiled in case of war
>1935, would never be any rebellion in USSR countryside
5-Yr. Plans
Collectivization provided resources for industrialization
Produced by 1st5-Yr. Plan (1928-32), goals that Stalin drew up in 1927/revised
Called for industrialization, resulted in largest econ. Growth in history
Stats boasted annual growth rates of 20%
West estimates of 14%, worldwide depression
Built new industries/cities; factory town Magnitogorsk emerged from steppes in 1929 to become steel-producing factory town of 250k in 1932
Transformed landscape/pop.; Moscow/Leningrad doubled in 30s, new cities sprang
1926, 1/5 lived in towns; 1939, 1/3 did, urban pop. Grew from 26m-56m
Projects were carried out with prison labor, especially timber/mining industries
Laborcamp system,gulag, became part of econ.
Ppl. Were arrested/sent to camps on charges from criminal infractions to contact with foreigners to being born bourgeois/kulak
Camp system spread in USSR in 30s; 1939, 3.6m were incarcerated
Used to complete taskssuch as construction of Moscow-White Sea canal; save $, canal connecting Moscow to seaports of north was constructed without machines
Was dug by hand, human labor used to power everything
10k?s died; never functioned, too shallow, froze in winter, bombed in WW2
Command econ., each yr?s. production lvl?s. planned, never functioned
Heavy industry was favored over light, emphasis on quantity made quality insig.
Consumer would be left with useless goods; transformed country from agrarianism to industrialism, would become econ. Disaster
Altered Soviet cities/working class; were made up of 1st-generation peasants who brought rural traditions to cities, changing urban culture; women entered workforce in 30s, went from 20-40% of workforce, made up 2/3 of light industry by 1940
Stalin promoted conservatism; modernism in art of 20s was crushed by socialist realism, aesthetic that celebrated socialism/left no room for experimentation
Fam. Policy/gender roles underwent reversal
Bolsheviks promoted attempt to rebuild fam./create proletarian social structure
20s, legalized divorce, expelled Orthodox Church from marriage, legalized abortion
Stalin abandoned fam. To strengthen fam. Ties: divorce became difficult, abortion was outlawed in 1936 except when it threatened mother,homosex. Was criminal
Women were forced to carry fam./wage labor to support society
Great Terror
1937-8, 1m dead/1.5m in labor camps
Stalin consolidated dictatorship, eliminated enemies
Former/current elites were victims; top of Bolsheviks was purged; 100kmembers were removed, facing prison/execution
Top including Bukharin were condemned at staged trials/shot
Struck at nonparty elites, industrialists, intel?s.
Purged military of ppl. Deemed threats, arresting 40k officers/shooting 10k
Disrupted gov?t/econ./allowed Stalin to promote new officials
Poles, Ukrainians, Lithuanians, Latvians, Koreans were viewed suspiciously
200k-300k ?dekulakized? peasants/criminals were arrested/shot
1939, private manufacturing/trade was abolished
Factories, mines, RRs, publicutilities were owned by state
Stores were gov?t enterprises/co?op?s. in which consumers owned shares
Agriculture was socialized; were advances in social reform
Illit. Was reduced from 50-20%, hi. Edu. Was available
Gov?t assistance for working mothers/freehospitalization rose health
Society was industrial, urban, modern
Fascism in Italy
Italy emerged from WW1 as democracy in distress
Was on winning side/war cost 700k Italians/$15b
Was promised territory, promises withdrawn, conflicted with self-determination
Claims to west coast of Adriatic were denied by Yugoslavia
Received Austrian territories, maintained these were inadequate
Militant nat?l?ists seized Fiume, port city on Adriatic, held it for yr. before being disbanded by Italian military
Nat?l?sts blamed ?mutilated victory? on Wilson, turned on rulers
Since unification, Italy was rent by split between industrial north/agrarian south
Conflict over land, wages, power caused friction in countryside/urban centers
Gov?t?s were corrupt, indecisive, defeatist
Inflation/unemployment were destructive; inflation produced hi. Prices, speculation, profiteering; postwar labor market was glutted by soldiers
Business elites were shaken by strikes, became large, closing foreign markets
Parliamentary gov?t failed to easeconditions, Italians wanted radical reform
For working class, meant socialism; 1919, socialists won 1/3 Chamber of Deputies
Movement grew radical: 1920, socialist/anarchist workers seized factories in metallurgy sector, ran them for workers
Countryside, peasants had no land, worked for wages as laborers on estates
Demands for land reform grew militant; rural areas, Red Leagues broke up estates/forced landlords to reduce rents;Russian Revolution encouraged radicalism; voters abandoned poorly organized parties of center/moderate left
Supported 2 radical groups: Socialists/Catholic Ppl?s. party, appealed to peasants
Radicalism worried social groups; industrialists/landowners feared for prop.
Shopkeepers/white-collar workers were alienated by businesselites/radicals
Threat from left provoked surge to right; fascism appeared in vigilante groups breaking strikes, fighting with workers, ousting Red Leagues
Mussolini
Left Italy for study in Switzerland; read books/wrote articles for socialist newspapers
Expelled from country for fomenting strikes, returned to Italy, became journalist/editor ofAvanti, socialist daily
Reversed himself a lot; WW1 broke, Mussolini insisted Italy remain neutral
Urged participation with Allies later; found new paper,Il Popolo d?Italia, dedicated columns to war
10/1914, organized groups called fasci to support war; members were idealists/nat?l?ists
Formed fascist movement; 1919, Mussolini drafted platform for Fascist party
Included universal suffrage, 8-hr. workday, tax on inheritances
New platform adopted in 1920 abandoned econ. Reforms
Neither platform helped Fascists
Gained middle class/landowners, intimidated others by repressing commoners
Attacked socialists/took over local gov?t?s;Mussolini looked like solution to crisis; 9/1922, negotiated with other parties/king for fascist participation in gov?t
10/28/1922, 50k fascist militia marched/occupied Rome, capital; premier resigned, 10/29/1922, king Victor Emmanuel III invited Mussolini to form cabinet
Mussolini est. 1-party dictatorship
Italian fascism had 3 parts: 1stwas statism, state was declared to incorp. Eveyr interest of members;2ndwas nat?l?ism, nationhood was highest form of society
3rdwas militarism, nations that didn?t expo. Would die
Mussolini changed electoral lawsso they granted party majorities/intimidate opposition
Closed down parliamentary gov?t/other parties
Abolished cabinet system; made Fascist party part of Italian constitution
Assumed PM/party leader, used militia to eliminate enemies
Ctrl?d. police,muzzled press, censored academics
Preached end of class conflict/replacement by nat?l unity
Reorganized econ./labor, taking power away from labor movement
Econ. Was placed under management of 22 corp?s.; in each corp. were rep?s. of trade unions, members were organized by Fascist party, employers, gov?t
Members determined working conditions, wages, prices
Decisions were supervised by gov?t/favored management
Gov?t aligned with business, creating corrupt bureaucracy
Mussolini secured working-class assent with state programs, including public-works projects, library building, paid vacations, social security
1929, settled 60-yr. conflict with Catholic Church; signed treaty grantingindep. To papal residence in Vatican City/est. Roman Catholicism as religionof state
Guaranteed religious edu./made religious marriage ceremonies mandatory
Party officers supervised bureaucrats, didn?t infiltrate bureaucracy
Mussolini was friendly with elites who assisted him
Italy remained dependent on private enterprise
Italianecon. Improved in late 20s; regime created appearance of efficiency, admirers claimed he ?made trains run on time;?Italy was still in depression in 30s
Fascism sought to restore authority/mobilize Italian society for econ./nat?l?ist purposes, undercut older authorities; created authoritarian organizations/activities that comported goals: exercise programs to make youth fit, youth camps, awards to mothers of large fam?s., political rallies, parades in countryside
Offered ppl. Political involvement despite lack of rights
Weimar Germany
11/9/1918, uprising in Berlin resulted in kaiser?s abdication/birth of German republic
Leader was Friedrich Ebert, Social Democrat in Reichstag
Revolution spread; 12/1918, workers/soldiers ctrl?d. 100s of German cities
Socialistssteered democratic: wanted reforms/left bureaucracy intact
Wanted elected nat?l assembly to draft constitution
1/1919, crisis verged on civil war
Movement that brought SPD to power threatened it; indep. Socialists/Commie party wanted radical reforms,12/1918-1/1919, staged uprisings in Berlin
Gov?t turned against allies/sent militant workers/volunteers to crush uprising
Gov?t?s fighters murdered Rosa Luxembourg/Karl Liebknecht, 2 German commie leaders who became martyrs; violence cont?d. to 1920, creating bitterness
Revolution gave rise to militant counterrevolutionaries
Vets/nat?l?ists joinedFreikorps; dev?d. thruout country, drawing 100k?s
Army officers fought Bolsheviks, Poles, commies
Politics of Freikorps were right wing; anti-Marxist, anti-Semitic, antiliberal, opposed German republic/parliament; Nazis participated in Freikorps
Gov?t, known as Weimar Republic for city in which constitution was drafted, rested on coalition of socialists, Catholic centrists, liberal democrats, no party won majorityin 1/1919 election; constitution was based on parliamentary liberalism/set up pluralistic framework for democracy; constitution est. universal suffrage, bill of rights that guaranteed civil liberties/social entitlements
1930, was in crisis, 1933, collapsed;Germans latched onto rumors that army wasn?t defeated in battle/was stabbed by socialists/Jews
Army officers cultivated story before war was over; salved pride of Germans
30s, ppl. Blamed republic, signed Versailles treaty
Ppl. Argued for authoritative leadership to gain world?s respect
Germany was forced to cede 10thof territory, accept responsibility for war, slash army to 100k, riled officers, for Treaty of Versailles
Saddled Germany with reparations; negotiating $33b debt created problems; provoked anger from Germans, global econ., had effects on recipients/debtors
Opponents of reparations urged gov?t not to pay, arguing sum would doom econ.
1924, Germany accepted schedule of reparations by internat?l committee headed by American financier Charles G. Dawes;German chancellor Gustav Stresemann moved Germany towardco?op./rapprochement that lasted in20s
Germans resented reparations, Versailles, gov?t that refused to repudiate treaty
1stper. Of emergency occurred in 20s for econ.; gov?t was pressed for revenues; funding postwar demobilization programs, social welfare, reparations forced gov?t to print $
Inflation became unstoppable; lb. of potatoes cost 9 marks in 1/1923, 40m by 10/1923; beef went for 2t marks/lb.
Gov?t stabilized currency in 1924, Germans were ruined
For those on fixed incomes, pensioners/stockholders, saving/security vanished
Middle-class employees, farmers, workers were hit, abandoned parties in protest
Parties claimed to rep. middle classes, created problems/were incapable of fixing
1925, econ./gov?t were recovering
By borrowing $, was able to make scaled-down payments/earn $ by selling exports
Cities, socialist municipal gov?t?s sponsored building projects that included schools, hospitals, low-cost worker housing;econ. Remained dependent on capital from Us set up by Dawes Plan as part of effort to settle reparations
Dependence made econ. Vulnerable to US econ.; stock market crashed in 1929, beginning Great Depression, capital flow to Germany stopped
1929, were 2m unemployed; 1932, 6m
Production dropped 44%, 1929-32; artisans/shopkeepers lost status/income
Framers never recovered from crisis in early 20s; peasants demo?d. against gov?t?s agricultural policies; white-collar/civil service employees, depression meant low salaries, poor working conditions, unemployment
Plummeting tax revenues/Germans in need of relief, gov?t cut welfare
Industrialists supported authoritarianism, were allied with conservative landowners, united by desire for protective econ. Policies
Conservatives wielded power beyond gov?t
Army/civil service, staffed with opponents of republic
Hitler/Nat?l Socialists
Nat?l Socialism emerged out of bitterness of defeat in WW1, Adolf Hitler?s party gained support after crisis caused by Depression in 1929 ledGermans to give up on politics
Hitler was born in 1889 in Austria; dropped out of school/went to Vienna in 1909 tobecome artist
Failed; was rejected by academy/did manual labor/painted watercolors in Vienna
Dev?d. prejudices that would become principlesof Nazi regime
Admired Austrian politicians preaching anti-Semitism, anti-Marxism, pan-Germanism; 1914, enlisted in Germany army;<1918, joined German Workers? party, name changed in 1920 to Nat?l Socialist Workers? party, abbreviated Nazi
Nazis were small/militant, devoted to racial nat?l?ism/overthrow of Weimar
Refused to accept defeat/Nov. Revolution/blamed both on socialists/jews
Was orator; 1921, wasFuhrer, leader of followers in Bavaria
Public saw him as ?vulgar demagogue;? 11/1923, Nazis tried to overthrow gov?t of Bavaria; Hitler spent 7 months in prison, wrote autobio.Mein Kampfin 1924
Anti-Semitism/anti-commie, book set out theory that Germany was betrayed by enemies/needed leadership to regain prominence
Hitler recognized Nazis needed to play politics if they wanted to gain power
Resumed leadership of party; 5 yrs., consolidated power
Crusaded against Marxism, capitalism, Jews
?Inflation election? of 1924, Nazis polled 6.6%
With econ. Stabilization in mid-20s, dropped to <3%
Nazis were buildingparty activists that laid foundation for electoral gains later
>1928, polarization between right/left worked with Hitler/made it impossible for Weimar to put together coalition of democracy
Voters, especially rural areas, deserted political parties
Nazis attracted members of rural/urban middle classes; guided by propagandist Joseph Goebbels, criticized Weimar: parliamentary system, power of left/labor movement, liberal codes, women wearing flapper fashions, ?cosmopolitan? moviessuch asAll Quiet on the Western Front
Nazis were alternative to parties of middle-class conservatives
1930, were better funded, winning 18.3%
Nazis polled with small prop. Holders/rural middle class before depression
Pensioners, elderly, war widows supported Nazis during econ. Crisis, feared reduction of insurance/pension/conservative parties failed to meet needs
Courted elitist civil service; failed to win votes from industrialists, found support with workers in handicrafts/small-scale manufacturing
1930, Nazis won 107/577 seats inReichstag, 2ndto Social Democrats, ctrl?d. 143
No party could gain majority; no coalition was possible without Nazis
Nazis refused to join cabinet not headed by Hitler; chancellor Heinrich Bruning of Catholic Center party gov?d. by emergency decrees, deflationary econ. Policies were disastrous; industrial production crashed/unemployment climbed
1932, Hitler ran for pres./lost, staged campaign by plane, visiting 21 cities in 6 days
Election was called in 7/1932, Nazis won 37.4%, sig. plurality
Nazis could claim they were party able to draw support across class, geo., generational lines; benefited from being outsiders, untainted by coalitions
Hitler still wasn?t in power; was appointed chancellor in 1/1933 by Pres. Hindenburg, hoped to create conservative coalition gov?t by bringing Nazis with moderates
Dutch anarchist with links to Commie party set fire to Reichstag on 2/27/1933, Hitler suspended civil rights
Convinced Hindenburg to dissolve Reichstag/order election on 3/5/1933
New parliament granted himunlimited powers for 4 yrs.
Hitler proclaimedgov?t 3rdReich
Nazi Germany
Fall 1933, Germany became 1-party state; socialist/commie left was crushed by regime
Non-Nazi organizations were abolished/forced to become part of Nazis
Nazi leaders took gov?tdep?s.: partyGauleiters, regional directors, assumed admin.
Party propaganda sought to impress citizens with ?monolithic efficiency?
Nazi gov?t was disorganized, all trying to win Hitler?s favor
Paramilitary Nazi storm troopers were formed to maintaindiscipline within party/impose order in society
SA membership soared >1933; radicalism was alarming to conservatives
Hitler needed to tame SA; 6/30/1934, 1k+ SA officials were executed in purge known as Night of Long Knives
Was accomplished by 2ndparamilitary organizationSchutzstaffel, SS
Headed by Heinrich Himmler, became most dreaded arm of Nazis
Mission of SS was to fight political/racial enemies of regime, included building conc. Camps; 1stcamp, Dachau, opened in 3/1933
Secret state police, Gestapo,were responsible for arrest, incarceration in camps, murder of 1k?s of Germans;understaffed/deluged in paperwork; arrests were based on denunciations made by citizens against each other
Germans approved of Hitler?s violence against left
Nazis could play on fears of communism, spoke of pride/unity
Germans saw Hitler as symbol of strong, revitalized Germany
Propagandists fostered this, depicting Hitler as leader with nrg
Appeal rested on ability to give Germans jobs for workers, econ., bulwark against communism; promised to lead Germany back to greatness/?overthrow? Versailles
Called for rearmament/econ. Self-sufficiency
Made public investments, set market ctrl?s. to stop inflation/stabilize currency,sealed Germany off from world econ.
Launched state-financed construction projects, hi-ways., public housing, reforestation; late 30s, unemployment dropped from 6m-200k
Abolished class conflict by stripping working-class institutions of power
Outlawed trade unions/strikes, froze wages, organized workers/employers into Nat?l Labor Front; increased workers? welfare benefits
Class distinctions were blurred by regime?s attempts to infuse nat?l ?spirit? into society; organizations cut across class lines, especially youth
Hitler youth, club modeled on Boy Scouts, successful at teaching children about Reich; Nat?l Labor Service drafted students for term to work on state-sponsored building/reclamation projects; gov?t policy encouraged women to withdraw from labor force to ease unemployment/conform to Nazi notions of woman?s role
Nazi Racism
Hitler drew on social Darwinism
20th, social sciences took 19thprejudices to new terrain
Doctors, criminologists, social workers sought ways to cure social ills
Scientists/intel?s. purified body politic, improve human race, eliminate?unfit?
Progressive individuals subscribed to eugenics, program of racial engi?ing.
Eugenic policies began with 1933 law for compulsory sterilization of ?inferior/hereditarily tainted? ppl.; became murder of mentally/phys?ly.ill patients
19th, Christiananti-Semitism was joined by nat?l?ist anti-Jew theory; theorist of Euro nat?l?ism saw Jews as outsiders who could only be assimilated if they denied Jew ID
Dreyfus affair, anti-Semites launched propaganda against Jews, using books, pamphlets, magazinesblames Jews for socialism, internat?l banks, mass culture
Pogroms came in Russia; anti-Semitism drew line between Jews/non-Jews on bio.
Religious conversion/assimilation wouldn?t work
Conservatives told shopkeepers/workers that ?Jew capitalists? were responsible for demise of small business, dep. Stores, econ. Swings
Vienna, middle-class voters supported anti-Semitic Christian Democrats
Germany, 1893, 16 anti-Semites were elected to Reichstag, Conservative party made anti-Semitism part of program
Hitler didn?t make ?Jew Q? central to campaign appearances as Nazi movement entered mainstream, shifting to attacks on Marxism/Weimar democracy
Anti-Semitism didn?t distinguish Nazis from any party on right
German Jews faced discrimination, exclusion from rights, violence
Racial laws excluded Jews from office >4/1933
Nazis encouraged boycott of Jew merchants, SA threatened violence
1935, Nuremberg Decrees deprived Jews of citizenship/prohibited marriage between Jews/Germans
11/1938, SA attacked 7.5k Jew stores, burned 200 synagogues, killed 91 Jews, beat up 1k?s in campaign of terror known asKristallnacht, Night of Broken Glass
Legal persecution met acquiescence
Depression in Democracies
Brit, France, US, gov?t?s put trust in <1914 policies until Depression forced them to reform, lay foundations for welfare state
France/Brit kept price of manufactured goods low in 20s, stimulated demand
Deflation kept businessmen happy/placed burden on French/Brit workers, wages/living standards were low
Class conflict, gov?t?s refused to raise taxes to pay for social reforms
Workers? resentment in Brit elected 1stLabour party gov?t in 1924/29
Strike in Brit, 1926, increased middle-class antipathy toward workers
France, strikes after war subsided/employers refused to bargain withlabor unions
Passed social insurance in 1930, insured against sickness, old age, death, workers were unsatisfied
US was conservative; Pres?. Warren G. Harding, Calvin Coolidge, Herbert Hoover held social philosophy formulated by business/19th
Supreme Courtnullified progressive legislation
Conservative policies of <1914 were destroyed by Depression in 1929
Peaked during 1929-33, lasted decade
Origins of Depression
Lay in instability of currencies/interdep. Of econ?s.
20s, Euros had slow growth rate; drop inagricultural prices hurt south/east Euro, agriculture was small/hi. In cost
Bought fewer manufactured goods from north Euro, causing drop in industry
Restrictions on free trade crippled econ.; debtor nations needed markets to sell goods, were raising trade barriers to protect domestic manufacturers
10/1929, prices on New York Stock Exchange collapsed; 10/24/1929, ?Black Thurs.,? 12m shares were traded amid chaos
Market fell; Black Thurs. was followed by Black Mon./Black Tues.: falling prices with hi. # oftrades, worst day in history of stock exchange
Rise of US as creditor during Great War meant crash had consequences in Euro
Value of stocks dropped, banks were short of capital, closed
Internat?l investors called in debts; banks shut doors, among them Credit Anstalt, bank in Austria/interests in 2/3 of Austrian industry
Workers lost jobs; 1930, 4m Americans were unemployed, 1933, 13m, 1/3 of labor
Per capita income in US fell 48%; Germany, 1929, 2m were unemployed, 1932, 6m
Production dropped 44% in Germany, 47% in US
Led to bank failure/brought econ. To standstill
West responded with $ measures
1931, Brit abandoned gold standard; US followed in 1933
By not pegging currencies to gold, made $ cheaper/more available for recovery
Was forerunner of program of currency management, became element in nat?l?ism
Brit abandoned free trade in 1932, raising tariffs <100%
Brit composed of Conservative, Liberal, Labour parties came to power in 1931
Would spend beyond income; France adopted advanced policies to fightdepression
1936, responding to threat from ultraconservatives to overthrow republic, Popular Front gov?t under socialist Leon Blum was formed by Radical, Radical Socialist, Commie parties, lasted 2 yrs.; nat?l?ized munitions industry/reorganized Bank of France to break stockholders? monopolistic ctrl. Over credit
Gov?t decreed 40-hr. week for urban workers/initiated program for public works
For farmers, est. wheat office to fix price/regulate distribution of grain
Quelled threat from conservatives, conservatives were unco?op./unimpressed by attempts to aid French working class
Socialist/Jew, Blum faced anti-Semitism; fearing that Blum was French Lenin, conservatives declared ?Better Hitler than Blum?
US clung longest to 19thecon. Philosophy
Before depression, business classes adhered to freedom of contract
Industrialists insisted on forming monopolies, used gov?t to frustrate demands of workers/consumers; depression was more severe in US; US survived WW1 unscathed; 1933, Franklin D. Roosevelt succeeded Herbert hoover aspres./announced New Deal, reform/reconstruction
Aimed to get country back without destroying capitalism
Gov?t would manage con., sponsor relief, fund public works to increase purchasing power; policies were shaped by theories of Brit econ?ist.John Maynard Keynes, influential in 1919 treaty meetings in Paris
Argued that capitalism could crate good society if gov?t?s managed it
Abandoned balanced budgets; would have gov?t op. in red whenever private investments weren?t enough
Favored venture capital, $ for hi-risk./hi-reward. Investments
Recommended $ ctrl. To promote prosperity/full employment
Social Security, adopted Keynesian program ?currency management,? regulating value of $ according to econ.; helped individuals/country, left unemployment unsolved
1939, had 9m+ jobless, exceeded combo?d. unemployment of rest of world
WW2, US reached recovery
Interwar Culture: Artists/Intel?s.
Artists, writers, architects, composers brought revolutionary art forms of 1900 to mainstream as they rejected traditional values/experimented with new expression
Scientists/psych?ists. Challenged beliefs about universe/human nature
Radio, movies, advertising created mass culture that fed off of crisis
Interwar Intel?s.
Novelists, poets, dramatists were disillusioned byWW1; lit. reflected frustration, cynicism, disenchantment that emerged from failure of victory to fulfill promises
American Ernest Hemingway, novelThe Sun Also Rises(1926) described ?lost generation;? poetry of Anglo-American T. S. Eliot explored despair:life as living death, endured as boredom/frustration;German author Bertolt Brecht depictedcorruption of elite in plays written for working-class audience in cabarets
Writers focused on consciousness/inner life, experimenting with prose
Irish writer JamesJoyce perfected style ?stream of consciousness? inUlysses(1922), associated with French author Marcel Proust
Brit author Virginia Woolf criticized Brit?s elite, from uni?s. that isolated women in underfunded colleges to decorum of middle-class fam?s./relationships
Depression fostered politicized lit., new generation felt called on to indict injustice/pt. way to better society;The Grapes of Wrath(1939), American writer John Steinbeck depicted impoverished farmers fleeing Dust Bowl to California to find it monopolized by companies that exploited workers;Brit authors W. H. Auden, Stephen Spender, Christopher Isherwood were commies who believed duty was to support revolution
Interwar Artists
Avant-garde thrived in postwar
Visual art: tech, science. Discoveries, abandonment of tradition, non-West cultures
Pablo Picasso pursued experiments in cubist variations/inventions
?Expressionists? argued color/line expressed qualities of themselves, paintings didn?t need rep. subject;Russian Wassily Kandinsky created abstract/colorful paintings he called ?improvisations;? group claimed goal was ?objectivity? by which they meant appraisal of humans
German George Grosz who was critical; cartoons became portraits of Weimar gov?t
Dadists rebelled against aesthetic
Principleswere based on reason, world proved that reason didn?t exist
Pulling name at random, Dadaists rejected art. Conventions, preferring random cutouts/collage, assemblages from wood, glass, metal
Artists, Frenchman Marcel Duchamp, German Max Ernst, Alsation Jean, claimedworks were meaningless/playful, critics saw expressions of subconscious
Germany, Dadaism took on politics as anarchist criticism
Artists found inspiration in politics
Mexican muralists Diego Rivera/Jose Clemente Orozco/Americans Thomas Hart Benton/Reginald Marsh sought to depict conditions, presenting workingppl.
Avoided experimentalism/expressionism, aimed for intelligible art
Architects sought style that was in harmony with needs of civilization
Otto Wagner in Austria, Charles Edouard Jeanneretin France, Louis Sullivan/Frank Lloyd Wright in US pioneered ?functionalism?
Believed appearance of building should proclaim use
Ornament was designed to reflect science/machines;German functionalist Walter Gropius est. school in 1919, Bauhaus, center fordev. Of modern architecture
Style, internat?l style, used new materials, chromium, glass, steel, concrete
Interwar Science
Work of German physicist Albert Einstein revolutionized phys. Science/challenged beliefs about universe;Q?d. foundations of physics;1915, proposed new ways of thinking about space, matter, time, gravity
Theories paved way for dev. In physics, splitting of atom
1905, Einstein was convinced of equivalence of mass/nrg/made formula for conversion:E = mc2;Had no application for yrs.; 1932, Englishman sir James Chadwick discovered neutron, scientists had weapon for bombarding atom
1939, 2 German physicists Otto Hahn/Fritz Strassman split atoms of uranium by bombarding them with neutrons
Reaction produced chain: each atom split shot off neutrons, split more atoms
Scientists in Germany, Brit, US were spurred by gov?t?s to make weapon, WW2
US scientists prepared atom bomb, most destructive weapon created
Einstein promoted pacifism, liberalism, social justice
?Uncertainty principle,? posited byGerman physicist Werner Heisenberg in 1927
Influenced by Einstein, showed it was impossible to measure position/speed of object at same time;consequence of dealing with atoms/subatom. Particles
Public had no understanding, metaphorical invocations of relativity/uncertainty principle fitted ambiguities
Mass Culture/Possibilities
Mass media in interwar transformed culture; radio/films; politics incorp?d. media, setting off worries that commoners could be manipulated by propaganda
1918, mass politics meant universal suffrage, organized parties, participation
Accompanied by books, newspapers, films, fashions produced in standard formats, less expensive/more accessible
Older culture was local/class specific; mass culture cut across class/ethnicity
Wireless comm. Was invented <1900/saw limited use in WW1
Investment in 20s, radio boomed
? Brit fam?s. had radio by end of 30s, Germany, ratio was higher
Euro, broadcasting rights were ctrl?d. by gov?t; US, radio was managed by corp?s.
Broadcast became nat?l soapbox for politicians
Pres. Franklin Roosevelt?s ?fireside chats? took advantage
Hitler barked invectives, made 50 addresses in 1933
Germany, Nazi propagandists beamed messages constantly
Advertising was prominent; businesses spent more on it
Visual images replaced ads that announced products, prices, brand names
Observers considered advertising art form
Advertising agencies claimed to have science of selling
Moving pictures came in 1890s, nickelodeons/short actionpictures
France/Italy had film industries; popularized by news shorts during war, boomed in interwar; sound was added in 1927, costs soared/competition intensified
30s, 40% of Brits went to movies wk?ly.
US film industry gained edge in Euro, buoyed by sizeof market, investments in equipment/distribution, marketing, Hollywood?s star system of long contracts
Germany had directors, writers, actors, production company UFA (Universum Film AG), ran largest studios in Euro
Run by gov?t during WW1, devastated by econ. Of 20s, rescued by German nat?l?ists in late 20s, taken over by Nazis;Weimar, UFA producedDer letzte mann(The Last Man), acclaimed/directed by F. W. Murnau, German expressionist
Fritz Lang directed sci-fi.Metropolis(1926)/M(1931)
Nazis placed itunder Joseph Goebbels/Ministry of Propaganda
Production cont?d., members fled
Threat came from US, deluged Euro with cultural exports
Hollywood westerns, dime novels, jazz music intro?d. Euro to new ways of life
Advertising, comedies, romances disseminatednew femininity
With bobbed haircuts/short dresses, ?new women? were assertive, flirtatious, capricious, materialistic;Wild West was popular with teen boys, parents saw westerns as inappropriate, lower-class entertainment
Euro, cross-class appeal ofAmerican culture grated against social hierarchies
Conservatives abhorred; Americans critics expressed concerns of lack of religion
US enjoyed more stability than Euro; ?Americanization? seemed good for nations
Authoritarian gov?t?s decried decadence to nat?l culture
Fascist, commie, Nazi gov?t?s ctrl?d. culture/modernism
Stalin preferred socialist realism to Soviet avant-garde; Mussolini supported class kitsch, accepting of modern art, Hitler despised its decadence
Nazism promoted ?Aryan? art/architecture/rejected modern/internat?l style they associated with ?internat?l Jew conspiracy?
Modernism, functionalism, atonality were banned, revived Germany?s heroic past
Walter Gropius? experiments in modernist architecture stood as monuments to what Nazis hated; Bauhaus school closed in 1933, Hitler hired Albert Speer as architect, commissioning him to design neoclassical buildings, including plan to rebuild Berlin
Nazis used mass media for indoctrination
Movies became part of Nazi?s use of ?spectacular politics?
Media campaigns, rallies, parades, ceremonies were designed to display strength of Reich/impress spectators;1934, Hitler commissioned filmmaker Leni Riefenstahl to record rally staged by herself/Albert Speer in Nuremberg
FilmTriumph of the Will, hymn to Nordic race/Nazi regime
In film, ppl. Stood in parade formation, flags were in unison, invited viewers to surrender to ritual/symbolism; comedian Charlie Chaplin riposted in lampoonThe Great Dictator(1940), parody of Nazi pomposities
Nazis eliminated American culture, <1933, decried as bio./cultural degeneracy
Critics associated American dances/jazz with ?racially inferior? blacks/Jews
Nazis struck balance between propaganda/entertainment
Allowed cultural imports, including Hollywood/cultivating German alternatives to American cinema, music, fashions, dances
Joseph Goebbels, minister of propaganda who ctrl?d. film production, placed valueon econ. Viability
German film industry turned out comedies, escapist fantasies, romances
Dev?d. star system/kept audiences happy; became competitor internat?lly
Produced anti-Semitic films,The Eternal Jew(1940)/Jew Suss(1940), tale of Jew $-lender who brings Wurttemberg to ruin in 18th; town expels Jew community
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Kinberg, Nicholas
Michael Chakmakian
AP European History
29 May 2015
Chapter 14 Outline
WW1
Battle of Somme began 6/24/1916, Brit artillery barrage against German trenches along 25-mi.front; Brits fired 1.5m rounds over 7 days
Mixing gas with explosions, gunners pulverized landscape/poisoned atmosphere
German def?ers. Huddled in masks; guns went silent, 10k?s of Brits rose out of trenches, bearing 60 lbs. of equipment, made way into NoMan?s Land
Kinberg, Nicholas
Michael Chakmakian
AP European History
27 May 2015
Chapter 13 Outline
Modern Industry/Mass Politics, 1870 ? 1914
Revolting against conservatism of Italian culture,Italian poet/lit. editor F. T. Marinetti called for renewal of civilization thru ?courage, audacity, revolt?
Trumpeted futurism, new form of beauty, beauty of speed
Celebrated war/disparaged 19thliberalism
Late 19th, 2ndindustrial revolution produced techniques for manufacturing/sources of power, including electricity/petroleum; transformed Euro towns/cities
Euro nation-state electorates expo?d./new blocs of voters participated; mass-based political parties brought new demands; socialists mobilized industrial workers, suffragists demanded franchise for women
Arts/sciences, new theories challenged nature, society, truth, beauty
>18th, science was ally of liberalism, liberals/scientists shared faith in human reason/openness to inquiry into society/nature
Late19th, was strained by scientific investigations in new fields like bio., psych., challenged liberal assumptions about human nature; artists/writers embraced innovation/rejected conventions in painting, sculpture, poetry, lit.
Tech/Global Transformations
New tech transformed manufacturing in Euro, leading to econ. Growth/realignments of industry, labor, gov?t?s
1stindustrial revolution centered on coal, steam, iron, 2ndon steel, electricity, chem.
Steel was construction material; producing steel cheaply/large quantities was impossible
Changed between 1850s/70s, diff. processes for refining
Brit?s shipbuilders switched to steel/kept lead
Germany/America dominated steel industry
1901, Germany was producing
Electricity, transmitted over distances to be converted into heat, light, made available for commercial/domestic use in 1880s, after dev. Of alternators/transformers capable of producing hi-voltage. Alternating current
1900, power stations, used water,could send electric current over long distance
1879, Thomas Edison invented incandescent-filament lamp/changed electricity into light; demand for electricity skyrocketed; electricity powered subways, tramways, RRs, made possible chem./metallurgical industries, altered living habits
Production of alkali/sulfuric acid transformed manufacture of consumer goods as paper, soaps, textiles, fertilizer
Brit/Germany became leaders; concerns for house hygiene/techniques in mass marketing enabled Brit entrepreneur Harold Lever to market soaps/cleansers
German production focused on industry, such as dev?ing. Synthetic dyes/methods for refining petroleum, ctrl?d. 90% of chem. Market
Demand for power spurred invention of liquid-fuel internal combustion engine
1914, navies/steamship companies converted from coal to oil
Engines? dependence on petroleum/gas threatened application, discovery of oil in Russia, Borneo, Persia, Texas in 1900 allayed fears
Protecting oil reserves became state prerogative; adoption of oil-powered machinery meant that industrialists could move to regions bereft of resources
Changes in Scope
Industry/marketing had factories/cities growing, advances in media/mobility spurred creation of cultures; ppl. Followed news; watched Euro powers divide globe; RRs,dams, canals, harbors grew; generated income for builders, investors, bankers, entrepreneurs, makers of steel/concrete
Canals in central Euro, RRs in Andes, telegraph cables spanning ocean floors
Pop. Grew in central/east Euro; Russia?s pop. Increased?/Germany?s by ? in 20 yrs.
Brit grew 1/3 between 1881/1911; improvements in crop yields/shipping, food shortages declined
Advances in medicine/ nutrition, hygiene diminished diseases cholera/typhus
Credit/Consumerism
Econ?ists. Worried about consumerconfidence/tracking buying habits began in mid-20th
Advertisement took off; advertised concert halls, soaps, bicycles, sewing machines
1880s, stores sought working-class by intro?ing. Credit payment
Working-class pawned watches, mattresses, furniture to borrow $; bought on credit
Countryside, peasants saved $ under mattresses, pass down furniture, mend clothes/linens, offer sugar as gift
Corp.
Econ./consumption spurred reorganization, consolidation, regulation of capitalism
Capitalist enterprises were financed by investors thru joint-stock >16th, was during 19ththat modern corp. came
To mobilize funds, entrepreneurs offered better guarantees on investors? $
To provide protection, Euros enacted limited-liability laws, ensured stockholders lost value of shares in bankruptcy; middle-class considered corp. investment; 1870, stock markets attracted commercial/industrial ventures
Firms were small/mid-size, companies incorp?d. to attain size for survival
Shifted ctrl. To bankers/financiers; financial institutions rep?d. interests of investors, bankers? ctrl. Over growth encouraged finance capital
2ndindustrial revolution created demand for tech., undercut fam. Management
Uni. Degrees in engi?ing./chem. Became more valuable
Business enterprises were spurred by beliefthat consolidation protected society against boom/bust econ./inefficiencies
Industries combo?d. vertically, attempting to ctrl. Every step of production
Andrew Carnegie?s steel company in Pittsburgh ctrl?d. costs by owning iron/coal mines for steel production/acquiring steamships/RRs to transport ore to mills
Horizontal alignment, organizing into cartels, companies in same industry would band to fix prices/ctrl. Competition
Coal, oil, steel companies were suited, few could afford building foundries
1894, Rhenish-Westphalian Coal Syndicate captured 98% of Germany?s coal market by fighting small competitors, could join syndicate or face ruin
John D. Rockefeller?s Standard Oil Company ctrl?d. petroleum in US, producing 90%+ of country?s oil by 1880s; monopoly was sustained thru Standard Oil Trust, legal innovation that enabled Rockefeller to ctrl. Allied companies thru gov?t
Cartels were strong in Germany/America/less in Brit, dedication to free-trade policies made price fixing difficult/France, fam. Firms/laborers opposed cartels/had less industry
Gov?t stemmed cartels, trend was increased co?op. between gov?t?s/industry
Corp?s. dev?d. relationship with states in West, in colonial industrial projects such as construction of RRs, harbors, seafaring steamships
Were so costly that private enterprise wouldn?t have done it alone
Served political interests, gov?t?s funded them; businessmen/financiers were officersof state;German banker Bernhard Dernburg was German sec. of state for colonies
Joseph Chamberlain, Britmanufacturer/mayoral boss of Birmingham, served as colonial sec.;France, Charles Jonnart, pres. Of Suez Canal Company/Saint-Etienne steel works, gov. gen. of Algeria
Global Econ.
1870s-on, industrialization heightened competition among nations
Search formarkets, goods, influence fueled expo./put countries at odds
Trade barriers arose; nations except Brit raised tariffs, arguing needs of nation-state trumped laissez-faire; changes fueled growth of interlocking finance; adoption of gold standard facilitatedworld trade
Pegging value of currencies against gold meant currencies could be exchanged
Allowed nations to use 3rdcountry to mediate trade/exchange to mitigate trade imbalances, problem of West;Euro imported more than exported; econ?s. relied on ?invisible? exports: shipping, insurance, banking; Brit?s exports were greatest
London was $ market of world; 1914, Brit had $20b invested overseas, $8.7b for France/$6b for Germany
Brit used invisible trade to secure relations with food-producing nations,becoming buyer for wheat for US/Canada, beef of Argentina, mutton of Aussie
Goods kept down food prices for working-class fam?s./eased demand for wages
Euros expected foods; Africa, Latin America, Asia produced for Euro market
Labor Politics, Mass Movements
Corp?s. devised methods for protecting interests/workers did same
Labor unions, limited to skilled male workers in small-scale enterprise, grew during late 19thinto mass, centralized, nationwide organizations
?New unionism? emphasized organization across industries/brought unskilledworkers, increasing power to negotiate wages/conditions
Nat?l unions provided framework for socialist mass party
Parliamentary gov?t?s opened politics to new ppl., including socialists
Socialists led efforts to expo. Voting rights in 1860s/70s
Success created new constituencies of working-class men; struggles between labor/management moved to nat?l lvl.; gov?t?s aligned with business interests, legislators counted working-class with antilabor/antisocialist laws
Organization ofpolitical movements was only way to counter industrialists
Socialist movements abandoned revolution for parliamentary systems
Spread of Socialism/Alternatives
Radical was Karl Marx; >1840s, Marx/Friedrich Engels were intellectuals/activists, participatingin socialist movements;1867, Marx pub. 1stof 3 volumes ofCapital
Attacked capitalism using econ. Analysis, contemptuous of other socialists whose opposition to industrial econ?s. were couched in moral terms
Work claimed to offer systematic analysis of how capitalism forced workers to exchange labor for subsistence wages while employers amassed wealth
Called for workers to ally to create political force
Made claims for gender =ity, women?s suffrage took back seat to class politics
Diff?s. among left-winggroups, divisive issues were violence/whether socialists should co?op. with liberal gov?t?s;?Gradualists? worked with liberals for piecemeal reform, anarchists/syndicalists rejected parliament;Euro labor leaders met in 1864 at 1stmeeting of Internat?l Working Men?s Association, Marx argued for mass movements, would prepare working classes for revolution; opposed by anarchist Mikhail Bakunin, rejected state/called for terror to destabilize society
1875-1905, Marxist socialistsgained inGermany, Belgium, France, Austria, Russia
Aimed to seize state to change social order; German Social Democratic party, worked for change within parliament, became radical in face of Bismarck?s antisocialist laws;1914, German Social Democrats were largest party in world
Industrialization, working class, gov?t hostile to labor made German workers receptive to social democracy
Brit, socialist presence was smaller; socialist agenda was advanced by Liberals in Brit
Labour party formed in 1901, was moderate, committed to reforming capitalism with support for public housing/welfare;Labour party, Parliament remained legit.
Militant workers organizing themselves found alternatives like anarchism/syndicalism
Anarchists shared socialism, were opposed to centralized econ?s./state
Est. self-sufficient democratic communities/guarantee individual sovereignty
Fell on conspiratorial violence, Marx denounced; assassinated Tsar Alexander II in 1881/5 other heads of state, believing ?exemplary terror? would spark revolt
Sydicalists embraced strikes/sabotage by workers; hope was that strike ofworkers would bring down capitalism/replace it with workers? syndicates/trade associations
Anarchism?s opposition to organization kept it from making gains
Syndicalists? refusal toparticipate in politics limited command
1895, 7 socialist parties captured ?-1/3 of votes
Working-class movements never gained worker support; workers remained loyal to liberal traditions/religious parties, excluded because they weren?t male workers
Socialists Q?d. Marx?s assumptions about inevitability of workers? impoverishment/collapse of capitalism;German revisionists led by Eduard Bernstein challenged Marxism/called for shift to moderate reform, accomplished thru parliament
Radicals were incensed, feared reforms that favored workers might make working class accepting of status quo
Radicals were inspired by revolution in Russia in 1905; German Marxists such as Rosa Luxembourg called for strikes, hoping to ignite proletarian revolution
1914, gov?t?sconsulted labor leaders about workers? willingness to enlist
Working-class parties affected ability of nation-states to wage war
Laborers fought to dismay of socialist leaders
Demanding =ity: Suffrage/Women?s Movement
>1860s, working-class activism/liberalconstitutionalism expo?d. male suffrage; 1884, Germany, France, Brit enfranchised all men
19thpolitics relegated women to 2nd-class, egalitarian socialists didn?t challenge this
Women pressed thru indep. Organizations/direct action
Women?s movement won legal reforms, >1900, suffrage fed political crisis
Women?s organizations such as General German Women?s Association pressed for edu./legal reforms;Brit, women?s colleges were est./women won right to ctrl. Prop.
Laws in 1884/1910 gave Frenchwomen same right/ability to divorce
German women won divorce laws by 1870, 1900, were granted full rights
Enfranchisement meant econ., spiritual, moral advancement
Middle-class women founded clubs, pub. Journals, organized petitions, sponsored assemblies; German League ofWomen?s Voting Rights, est. 1902, founded to advocate votes;feminist socialists such as Clara Zetkin/Lily Braun who believed that socialist revolution would free women; French celebrity journalist/novelist Gyp was commentator on events, nat?l?ist/anti-Semitic
Brit, woman suffrage campaigns exploded in violence;Millicent Fawcett, middle-class with connections to politics, brought 16 organizations to Nat?l Union of Women?s Suffrage Societies, 1897, committed to peaceful reform
Movement lacked politics/econ.;couldn?t win Liberal/Conservative party, eachfeared female suffrage would benefit other party;Emmeline Pankhurst founded Women?s Social/Political Union in 1903, adopted militancy/civil disobedience
Chained themselves to visitors? gallery in House ofcommons, slashed paintings, inscribed ?Votes for Women? in acid on golf courses, disrupted meetings, burned politicians? houses, smashed dep-store.
Gov?t repressed; women went on hunger strikes in prisons, wardens force-fed them, holding mouths, running tubes down throats;1910, suffragists? attempt to enter House of Commons set off 6-hr. riot with police/bystanders
1913 martyrdom of Emily Wilding Davison, wearing ?Votes for Women? sash, threw herself in front of king?s horse on Derby Day/was trampled
Redefining Womanhood
Victorian gender roles were redefined; women took up jobs
Working-class women joined factories/workshops to stave off poverty, in spite of working-class men?s insistence that fam?s. required women at home
Expo. Of gov?t/corp. bureaucracies with scarcity of male labor brought middle-class women to work as social workers/clerks
Increase in hospital services/compulsory edu. Required nurses/teachers
Swiss uni?s./medical schools admitted women in 1860s; 1870s/80s, Brit women est. colleges at Cambridge/Oxford
Prussia, 14.6k women teachers were staffing schools <1896
Reform movements of early 19thdepended on women/raised standing
Charity work in religious associations/secular associations, directed toward poor relief, prison reform, Sun. school, temperance, ending slavery/prostitution, expo?ing. Edu. For women
Thought they had moral mission: saw activities as extension of feminine duties
?New woman? demanded edu./job, refused to be escorted, rejected corsets
Claimed right to active life/refused toconform to norms; was image created by artists/journalists, filled newspapers, magazines, billboards with pictures of women riding bicycles in bloomers, smoking cigarettes, enjoying cafes, dance halls, tonic waters, soaps; few women fit thisbecause of poverty; middle/working-class women demanded freedom/redefined gender norms
Ppl. Attacked women who defied convention as ?half-men,? unfit to marry
Opposition to changes was violent; men scorned women who threatened elite in uni., clubs, public offices;female antisuffragists denounced movement
Conservatives such as Mrs. Humphrey Ward said that bringing women into politics would sap virility of Brit
Octavia Hill, social worker, stated that women should be complacent
Christians criticized suffragists for bringing moral decay thru individualism
Ppl. Believed that feminism would dissolve fam.
Liberalism/Discontents: Nat?l Politics in 20th
Middle-class liberals were def. >1870
Power rested between middle-class/elites
Aristocracy shared power with industry;monarchs coexisted with constitutions
Late 19th, rise of mass politics upset this; franchise/expectations brought newcomers to politics
France: 3rdRepublic/Paris Commune
Franco-Prussian War of 1870, completed unification of Germany, defeat for France
Gov?t of 2ndEmpire folded; French proclaimed republic whose legit. Was contested
Constitution, 1875, est. democracy, faced class conflicts, scandals, conservatism
Nation?s rep?s. were against radical city Paris
During war, city appointed municipal gov?t, Commune
Paris refused to surrender to Germans/proclaimed itself true gov?t of France
Was besieged by Germans for 4 months, Paris defied armistice
Armistice signed, French gov?t turned attention to city
3/1871, gov?t sent troops to disarm capital
Commune?s support came from workers of Paris, conflict became class war
Wk., ?communards? battled troops, building barricades to stop invaders, taking hostages, retreating into north working-class neighborhoods
French gov?t was brutal; 25k+ Parisians were killed; 1k?s were deported to penal colony New Caledonia in South Pacific
Dreyfus Affair/Anti-Semitism
Catholic Church/nobility slipped, radical right-wing politics took shape
Stung by defeat in 1870/critical of republic, conservative was nat?l?ist, antiparliamentary, antiliberal;Maurice Barres, elected deputy in 1889, declared parliamentary gov?t sown ?impotence/corruption?/was too weak to def. nation
Nat?l?ism was invoked by right/linked to xenophobia/anti-Semitism
Dreyfus Affair; 1894, monarchist officers in army accused Alfred Dreyfus, Jew captain on gen. staff, of selling military secrets to Germany
Dreyfus was convicted/deported to Devil?s Island, South American prison colony in French Guiana, 1896, intel. Officer Georges Picquart discovered doc?s. used to convict Dreyfus were forgeries; war Dep. Refused to grant Dreyfus trial, case became scandal, fanned by involvement of intel. Figures
Republicans, socialists, liberals, intellectuals such as writer Emile Zola backed Dreyfus, claiming case was about rights/legit. Ofrepublic
Nat?l?ists, Catholics, socialists believed that case was distraction from econ.,opposed Dreyfus/refused to Q military?s judgment
Anti-Semitism was anti-Semitism within Christianity, damned Jews as Christ killers, econ. Anti-Semitism, insistedthat banking fam.Rothschild was rep. of all Jews, racial thinking, opposed Aryan race to inferior Semitic race
Anti-Dreyfus propagandists pub. Ideas in newspapers such as Edouard Drumont?sLa Libre Parole, French daily that claimed circulation of 200k during Dreyfus affair
1899, Dreyfus was pardoned/freed by exec. Order; 1906, French Supreme Court declared him free of guilt, reinstated in army as major
Laws between 1901/5 separated church/state in France
Republican legislature passed laws that prohibitedreligious orders in France that weren?t authorized by state/forbade clerics to teach in public schools
French Republic withstood anti-Semites from 1900-10; mayor of Vienna in 1897 was elected on anti-Semitic platform;Russian secret police forged/pub. Book calledThe Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion(1903/5), imagined Jew plot to dominate world/held Jews responsible for French Revolution/industrialization
Zionism
Theodor Herzl, Hungarian-born journalist working in Paris; anti-Semitism troubled Herzl; despite Jewish emancipation, granting of rights, Herzl believed Jews might never be assimilated to West culture/Jew community?s hopes were folly
Endorsed Zionism, building separate Jew homeland outside Euro
Movement of Jew settlers, refugees from Russia,est. settlements
Argued that Zionism should be recognized as nat?l?ist movement, capable of negotiating with other states, 1896, pub.The State of the Jews; 1897, convened 1stZionist Congress in Switzerland
Met with Brit/Ottoman heads of state; vision ofJew homeland had utopianism,believed that building new state had to be based on new society, eliminating in=ity/est. rights; writings received enthusiasm from Jews in east Euro
WW1, wartime needs prompted Brit to embroil Zionism for diplo.
Germany?sSearch for Unity
Thru foreign policy, 3 wars, nat?l sentiment, Otto von Bismarck united Germany under Prussian conservatism from 1864-71; sought to create centralizedinstitutions of modern nation-state while safeguarding privileges of elites, including dominance for Prussia
Constitution assigned admin., edu., juridical roles to state gov?t?s/est. bicameral parliament; appointed delegates of upper house, Bundesrat, served as conservative balance to democratic lower house, Reichstag, elected thru universal male suffrage
Exec. Branch, power rested with Wilhelm I, Prussian king/German Kaiser, had ctrl. Of foreign/military affairs
Germany?s cabinet ministers had no responsibility to parliament/answered to Kaiser
Divide between Catholics/Protestants, Social Democratic party, econ. Of agriculture/industry divided Germany
1871-8, Bismarck gov?d. with liberals promoting free trade/econ.
Bismarck unleashed anti-Catholic campaign in Prussia; known asKulturkampf, cultural struggle, passed laws that imprisoned priests for political sermons, banned Jesuits from Prussia, curbed church?s ctrl. Over edu./marriage
Backfired, sympathy helped Catholic Center party win ? in Reichstag in 1874
Bismarck fashioned coalition including agricultural/industrial interests/social conservative Catholics; passed protectionist legislation (grain tariffs, duties on iron/steel) that riled laissez-faire liberals/working class, rep?d. by SPD
Bismarck turned against Social Democrats/couched protectionist/antisocial legislation in def?ing.Christianity
1878, emperor was nearly killed twice, Bismarck declared crisis to push thru antisocialist laws that forbade Social Democrats to assemble/distribute lit.
Expelled socialists from cities; laws obliged Social Democrats to foster subculture of workers who liked socialism
Workers were guaranteed sickness insurance, factory inspection, limited hrs. for women/children, max. workday for men, employment agencies, old-age pensions, 1890
Votes for SDP quadrupled between 1881/90, Bismarck resigned, sociallegislation he put thru failed to gain worker votes
Kaiser Wilhelm II legalized SPD; 1912, Social Democrats were largest bloc in Reichstag, Kaiser refused to allow politics beyond elites
Brit: Moderation to Militance
2ndReform Bill, 1867, extended suffrage to 1/3+ of adult males, 2 parties, Liberal/Conservative, vied to win voting blocs
Parliament passed laws that recognized legality of trade unions, commissioned rebuilding of urban areas, provided elementary edu. For children, permitted male religious dissenters to attend elite uni?s. Oxford/Cambridge
1884, suffrage expo?d. to include ?+ of adult males
Conservative Benjamin Disraeli/Liberal William Gladstone dominated politics
Disraeli, Jew/novelist, was pragmatic, Gladstone, Anglican, wanted moral reform
Leaders of both parties were drawn from middle class, offered moderation
Working-class movements were moderate <1900, trade unions/middle-class socialist societies combo?d. to create indep. Labour party in 1901
Pressed from left, Liberal ministry that took office in 1906 passed sickness, accident, old-age, unemployment insurance
Chancellor of exchequer (finance minister) David Lloyd George proposed budget in1909, included income/inheritance taxes, designed to make wealthy pay higher rates
Provoked showdown with House of Lords, forced to pass budget/surrender power to veto legislation passed by Commons
>1900, parliament buckled, ppl. Rejected legislative activity for radicalism
Industrial militants protested, includingnationwide strikes of coal/RR-workers/citywide transport strikes in London/Dublin
Woman suffragists adopted violence; Ireland, disagreements over Irish home rule threatened to produce confrontations between Irish nat?l?ists/Protestants
Ireland was put under direct gov?t of Parliament in 1800
1880s, nat?l?ist party, Irish Parliamentary party, made gains thru legislation, was eclipsed by radicalism >1900
Proponents of ?new nat?l?ism? disdained party as ineffectual
Ppl. Revived Irish history/culture/provided support to radicalism, as did organizations as Sinn Fein/Irish Republican Brotherhood; opponent was Protestant Ulster Volunteer force, led by military officers resisting home rule
1913, Liberal plan to grant home rule was on table, Brit was on verge of civil war
Russia: Revolution
Westindustrialization challenged Russia?s military
Liberalism, democracy, socialism threatened stability
1880s/90s, Russia launched industrialization that made it 5thlargest econ. By 1900
State directed industrial dev., no middle class capable of raising capital
Russia financed more dev. Than any Euro gov?t during 19th
Industrialization heightened tensions; transition from country to city was sudden/harsh
Left agriculture for factory work, straining village life/rural culture
Industrial areas, workers lived inbarracks/were marched to factories, workingconditions were worst in Euro
Coped by leaving villages temp./returning to farms for planting/harvest
Social change strained legal system, didn?t recognize trade unions/employers? associations; laws distinguished between nobles, peasants, clergy, town dwellers
Outdated banking/financial laws failed to serve modern econ.
Legal reform would threaten stability; Alexander II was killed by radical assassin in 1881, successor Alexander III steered country to right;Russia had nothing in common with west Euro; ppl. Were nurtured on piety/would be lost without autocratic system
Principle guided repression; regime curtailed assemblies, increased secret police, subjected villages to gov?t authority of nobles appointed by state
Press/schools remained under censorship
Nicholas II con?t.d Counter Reforms
Advocated Russification, gov?t programs to extend lang./religion over non-Russians
Amounted to coercion, expropriation, physical oppression: Finns lost constitution, Poles studied in Russian translation, Jews perished in pogroms
Russia was anti-Semitic/ignored villagers massacring Jews
Georgians, Armenians, Azerbaijanis of Caucasus Mts. Became nat?l?ist/anti-Russian
Populists believed Russia needed to modernize on own terms
Envisioned egalitarian Russia based on village commune; advocates were middle class, students, women made 15%
Formed secret bands, plotting to overthrow tsarism thru anarchy
Dedicated lives to ?ppl.,? attempting to live among commoners to understand desires
Emphasis on peasant socialism influenced Socialist Revolutionary party, formed in 1901, conc?d. on increasing power of peasant/building socialist society based on agrarian communalism of mir
Industrial capitalism/working class created Russian Marxism
Social Democratic party, Russian Marxists conc?d. on behalf of urban workers/saw themselves as part of internat?l working-class movement
Provided workers/intellectuals with ideology that stressed overthrow of tsarism/inevitability of better future
Autocracy gave way to capitalism/capitalism to egalitarian, classless society; Russian Marxism blended opposition with scientific approach to history
1903, leaders of Social Democratic party split over disagreement on revolutionary strat.
1 group, majority, named itself Bolsheviks, believed Russia called for centralized revolutionaries; insisted that industrialization meant they didn?t have to follow Marx?s model for West; revolutionaries could skip stage/build socialist state
Mensheviks, minority, were cautious/?gradualist,? liked Marxism
Mensheviks regained Social Democratic party, Bolsheviks formed splinter party under Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, lived in exile in west Euro between 1900/17
Wrote under pseudonym Lenin, from Lena River in Siberia, exiled earlier
Theoreticalabilities/organization commanded respect, enabling him to remain leader of Bolsheviks abroad; preached class struggle; need for socialist movement thruout Euro, belief that Russia was passing into econ. Stage that made it good for revolution
Was Bolsheviks? responsibility to organize party on behalf of workers, without discipline, workers couldn?t affect change
Lenin?s treatiseWhat Is to Be Done?(1902) set out vision of Russia?s destiny, denounced gradualists who urged collab. With moderates
Considered revolution only answer
1stRussian Revolution
Came in 1905, took radicalism by surprise
Resulted from Russian?s defeat in Russo-Japanese War of 1904-5; industrialization transformed Russia; econ. Boom of 1880s/90s turned to bust in 1900s, demand for good lvl?d., prices plummeted, working class suffered unemployment
Low grain prices resulted in peasant uprisings/students organizing
Middle class clamored for change, radical workers organized strikes/demo?d. in cities
Trust in benevolence of tsar was shaken on 1/22/1905, ?Bloody Sun.,? 200k workers led by priest Father Gapon, demo?d. grievances tsar?s winter palace in St. Petersburg
Guard troops killed 130, gov?t seemed brutal
1905, protest grew; merchants closed stores, factory owners shut down plants, lawyers refused to plead cases; autocracy lost rural towns as authorities were ejected/killed
Tsar Nicholas II issued October Manifesto, guaranteeing liberties, liberal franchise for election of Duma, legislative veto powers for Duma;1905-7, Nicholas revoked promises; deprived Duma of power/decreed that it be elected on class basis
Revolt persuaded tsar?s advisers that reform was urgent
Agrarian programs sponsored by gov?t?s leading minister, Peter Stolypin, were sig.
1906-11, Stolypin reforms provided for sale 5macres of royal land to peasants, granted permission to peasants to withdraw from mir/form indep. Farms, canceled peasant prop. Debts
Legalized labor unions, reduced working day, est. sickness/accident insurance
Russian agriculture was suspended between capitalism/peasant commune; industry didn?t advance much
Nat?l?ism/Politics: Balkans
Southeast Euro, 1890s, nat?l?ism divided Ottoman Empire
Sultan?s gov?t repressed uprisings in Bosnia, Herzegovina, Bulgaria in 1875-6, Russians interceded following reports of atrocities committed against Christians
Russo-Turkish War, 1877-8, tsarwon
Treaty of San Stefano forced sultan to surrender Euro, except for Constantinople
Brit/Austria, 1878, congress of great powers in Berlin divided spoils: Bessarabia went to Russia, Thessaly to Greece, Bosnia/Herzegovina to Austrian Empire
Montenegro, Serbia, Romania became indep., launching Balkan nat?l?ism
Cont?d. in 1908, Bulgars wrested indep. For Bulgaria from Ottomans, drove Austrians to annex Bosnia/Herzegovina
Nat?l?ism emerged in Ottoman Empire; edu?d. Turks called for rejuvenation thru West science/democracy; reformers called themselves ?Young Turks,? 1908, forced sultan to est. constitutional gov?t
1909, deposed Sultan Abdul Hamid II/placed brother Mohammed V on throne
Power of gov?t was entrusted to grand vizier/ministers responsible to parliament
Non-Turkish inhabitants weren?t given vote; Young Turks launched effort to ?Ottomanize? subjects, bringing Christian/Muslim communities under them, undercut popularity
Science/Soul of Modern Age
19thliberals believed in individualism, progress, science
Science confirmed liberals? faith in reason;20th, science defied expectations; evo., psych., social science intro?d. humanity that wasat odds with conventionalwisdom
Artists/intellectuals revolted against 19thconventions; all values were Q?d., avant-garde artists called for break with past
Darwin?s Theory
Geologists challenged biblical account of creation with evidence that world was formed by natural processes over 1m?s of yrs., didn?t find explanation for diff. species
Early 19th, French bio?ist. Jean Lamarck, argued behave. Changes could alteranimal?s char?s. with 1 generation/traits would be passed on to offspring
1859, pub. OfOn the Origin of SpeciesbyBrit naturalist Charles Darwin; Darwin traveled 5 yrs. As naturalist onHMS Beagle, chartered for science. Exploration on trip around world; observed species in diff. lands/wondered about origins
Knew that traits could be selected thru ctrl?d. breeding
Theorized variations with pop. Made organisms equipped/passing traits to offspring
Theory drew on Thomas Malthus, political econ?ist. Who argued human pop?s. grow faster than food supply, leading to competition for resources
Malthusian competition was ruleof nature, strong survived/weak perished
Competition with others/struggle for environment produced ?natural selection,? leading to evo. Of species; humans evolved from apelike ancestor
Evo./Religion
Evo. challenged religion, sparking discussion on existence of God
Critics denounced Darwin for contradicting literal interp?s. of Bible; work of theologians such as David Friedrich Strauss, adapted faith to biblical inaccuracies
Middle class didn?t accept Darwin?s challenge to benevolent God/moral universe
Worldwas gov?d. by chance/struggle; Darwinian worldview redefined good/bad
Darwin reconciled theory with God, others latched on work to attack Christianity
Philosopher Thomas Henry Huxley, earned nickname ?Darwin?s bulldog? by inveighing against Christians appalled by evo.
Social Darwinism
Sociology, psych., anthropology, econ. Applied science. To analysis of society/intro?d. new ways of quantifying, measuring, interp?ing. Human experience
Exerted influence on society; provided justification for econ./racialdominance
Social Darwinists, English philosopher Herbert Spencer, adapted Darwinism byapplying competition to classes, races, nations
Coinedsurvival of the fittest, used evo. To expound competition/attack welfare
Condemned collectivism/said that welfarehindered advancement
Challenges to Rationality: Pavlov, Freud, Nietzsche
Social scientists? finding stressed animalistic nature of humans
Russian physician Ivan Pavlov asserted animal behave. Could be understood as responses to stimuli; experiment showed that if dogs were fed after they heard bell, would salivate at sound of bell; insisted that conditioning constituted human behave.; known as ?behaviorism,? physiological psych. Avoided mind/consciousness, conc?ing. On reaction of muscles, nerves, glands, organs
Founded by Austrian physician Sigmund Freud, psychoanalysis posited unconscious drives conflict with rational conscience
Dev?d. over treating patients with nervous ailments, model of psyche contained id, undisciplined desires for pleasure, sex.,aggression, superego, conscience, registers morality/culture, ego, conflict between id/superego work itself out
Freud believed mental disorder resulted from tension between drives
Believed that studying disorders/dreams/slips of tongue, scientists could glimpse consciousness/understand irrational behave.
Was criticism of constraints imposed by social codes of West
German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche; observed middle class that he believed dominated by illusions, sought to unmask them
In works that rejected argument in favor of prose, argued that bourgeois faith in science, progress, democracy, religion rep?d. futile search for security
Denied possibility of knowing truth, since knowledge comes filtered thru lang., science., art. Systems of rep.
RidiculedJudeo-Christian morality for instilling conformity that drained civilization
Resounded with personal liberation, freedom from history
Ideal individual, ?superman,? abandoned conformity/created values based on char.
Religion/Critics
Catholic Church responded to secularism by appealing to dogma/traditions
1864, Pope Pius IX issued Syllabus of Errors, condemning religious/philosophical errors of time; among them were materialism, free thought, indifferentism (idea that 1 religion was as good as another); convoked 1stchurch council since Catholic Reformation, 1871, pronounced dogma of papal infallibility
Meant that pope was infallible to faith/morals; accepted by Catholics, provoked protest/denounced by Catholic countries, including France, Spain, Italy
Accessionof Pope Leo XIII in 1878 brought accommodation to church
Acknowledged there was good/evil in civilization; added science. Staff to Vatican/opened archives/observatories
Protestants couldn?t defend their faith thru doctrine; fundamentalists ignored science/philosophy/believed in literal truth of Bible
Pragmatists agreed with American philosophy, taught ?truth? was whatever produced results; if belief in God provided peace, belief was true
Protestants founded missions, laboring among poor; modernists accepted ethical teachings of Christianity/discarded miracles/original sin
Readers/Press
Diffusion of ideas was facilitated by lit. rates/printed mass culture
1750-1870, readership expo?d. from aristocracy to include middle class/pop.
1850, ? Euro was lit.; late19th, countries intro?d. elementary/secondary edu. To provide opportunities for advancement, diffuse tech knowledge, inculcate nat?l pride
1900, 85% of Brit, France, Belgium, Netherlands, Scandinavia, Germany could read
Pub?ers. Such as Alfred Harmsworthin Brit/William Randolph Hearst in US served
Newspapers appealed by sensational journalism/easy-to-read serials
Advertisements lowered costs of newspapers, enabling worker to purchase news
Yellow journalism of penny presses merged entertainment with news,aiming to increase circulation/secure advertising
1stModerns: Innovations in Art
Artists Q?d. moral/cultural values of middle-class society
Modernismencompassed contradictory theories that spanned art
Modernism had sense that world changed/change shouldbe embraced, belief that values/assumptions were outdates, concept of what art could do, stressed expression over rep./insisted on experiment/freedom
Distinguished by understanding of relationship between art/society
Artists were interested in aestheticQ?s/embraced that art could affect change
Abstract painter Wassily Kandinksy believed materialism was source of corruption, looked to future in which artists would nourish spirit; modernist hostility to values translated into antiliberal/revolutionary movements of extreme right/left
Revolt on Canvas
Modernism was in opposition to earlier principles
Meant rejection of mainstream academic art, affirmed museumgoers, realist tradition, strove for science. Exactitude in rep?ing. Reality
Rebellion of modern artists discarded realist rep.;>Renaissance, West art sought to depict 3D reality; paintings were considered mirrors on world
Late 19th, artists focused on subjective, psych. Oriented, emote. Self-expression
Break with rep. art emerged with French impressionists, young artists in 1870s
Were realists; steeped in science. About sensor perception, attempted to record natural phenomena; captured transitory play of light on surfaces, giving works sketchy quality
Claude Monet/Pierre-Auguste Enoir left 2 legacies to Euro avant-garde
Dev?d. new techniques without reference to past styles, impressionists paved way for younger artists to experiment
Salons rejected work, impressionists organized indep. Exhibitions from 1874-86
Undermined French Academy?s art./aesthetic standards, est. outsider exhibits
>1900, Frenchman Paul Cezanne; shattered rep. art
Painting became vehicle for self-expression; Dutchman Vincent van Gogh explored art?s expressive potential, emote./subjectivity
Painting was labor of faith, way to channelpassions
Paul Gauguin, fled to Pacific islands in 1891, art was refuge from corruption of Euro
>1900, avant-garde movements flowered; Germany/Scandinavia, expressionistsEmil Nolde/Edvard Munch turned to acid colors/figural distortions to express consciousness
Austrian Egon Schiele explored sex. With graphic imagery
Bohemian Paris, Frenchman Henri Matisse/Pablo Picasso, Catalan Spaniard, pursued aesthetic experiments
Cubists in Paris, vorticists in Brit, futurists in Italy embraced machine age
Movements embraced future with fascism
Russia/Holland, idealistic painters made aesthetic leap of early modernism
Text automatically extracted from attachment below. Please download attachment to view properly formatted document.
---Extracted text from uploads/european_history/chapter_13.odt---
Kinberg, Nicholas
Michael Chakmakian
AP European History
25 May 2015
Chapter 12 Outline
Imperialism/Colonialism, 1870 ? 1914
1869, Suez Canal opened; sliced thru 100s of mi. ofEgyptian desert to link Mediterranean/Red seas, cutting trip from London to Bombay in ?
Showcased abilities of West power/tech to transform globe, human cost: 30k Egyptians worked as forced laborers, 1k?s died during cholera epidemics
Kinberg, Nicholas
Michael Chakmakian
AP European History
23 May 2015
Chapter 11 Outline
Territories, States, Citizens, 1848 ? 1871
3/13/1848, Klemens von Metternich was forced toresign as minister of state
His system of internat'l relations, stability was guaranteed by reinforcing legit. Of rulers against reform, was swept aside by liberalism
Fled England; French king was overthrown in 2/1848
Kinberg, Nicholas
Michael Chakmakian
AP European History
19 May 2015
Chapter 10 Outline
Restoration to Revolution, 1815 ? 1848
Expo. Of informed public cont'd.
Wordcitizenwascontroversial in aftermath of French Revolution
Liberalism's ideas, =ity before law, freedom of expression, consent of gov'd., were threat to Euro rulers, especially with nat'l'ism
Kinberg, Nicholas
Michael Chakmakian
AP European History
17 May 2015
Chapter 9 Outline
Industrial Revolution/19thSociety
Following dev. Of mechanized industry/emergence oflarge-scale manufacturing in Brit textiles, industrialization spread to Euro/North America
Led proliferation of capital-intensive enterprises, new ways of organizing labor/cities
Made possible by newnrg, led to faster forms ofmechanized transport, higher productivity, emergence of consumer markets for manufactured goods
Kinberg, Nicholas
Michael Chakmakian
AP European History
14 May 2015
Chapter 8 Outline
French Revolution
Parisians attacked Bastille on 7/14/1789; revolt was support for Nat'l Assembly
Rep?s.declared toend to absolutism in France by writing constitution that made nation sovereign authority
Actions of revolutionaries were of anger at king's soldiers, feared might attack
Gov. of Bastille prison attacked revolutionaries, killing <100, redoubled fury
Prison fell, gov's. Body was dragged to square, beheaded
Kinberg, Nicholas
Michael Chakmakian
AP European History
13 May 2015
Chapter 7 Outline
Enlightenment
1762,Parlementof Toulouse, France convicted Jean Calas of murdering son
Was Protestant in region where Catholic-Protestant tensions ran hi.
Witnesses claimed that Calas wanted to break with fam./convert to Catholicism, convinced magistrates that Calas killed son to prevent conversion
Calas was tortured twiceto force confession/ID accomplices
Kinberg, Nicholas
Michael Chakmakian
AP European History
12 May 2015
Chapter 6 Outline
Science of 17th
Scienceentailed 3 things: knowledge, inquiry, practitioners/institutions that support work
Scientific revolutionof 17thinvolved these 3
Scientific revolution saw emergence of heliocentric view of planetary system, displaced earth from center of universe
Brought new math physics that described view
Kinberg, Nicholas
Michael Chakmakian
AP European History
9 May 2015
Chapter 5 Outline
Absolutism/Empire, 1660-1789
South-central France known as Auvergne in 1660s, marquis of Canillac had reputation
Had right to collect taxes on special occasions, insisted that small privileges be converted into tributes; housed 12 accomplices in castle that he called apostles
Imprisoned those who resisted/forced families to buy freedom
Kinberg, Nicholas
Michael Chakmakian
AP European History
7 May 2015
Chapter 4 Outline
Religion, War, Sovereignty, 1540 ? 1600
English losses in Hundred Years'War caused civil war
The First Part of Henry VIwas intended to explore origins of wars during reign of child-king who succeeded Henry V, completed trilogy that launched William Shakespeare
Civil strife was popular in 16th, England was more peaceful than other countries in Euro, unity was fragile;shattered because of religion, maintained by nat'l ID
Pages
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