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heart anatomy - lecture exam 2 Flashcards

all things heart

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658108423PericardiumProtects and Anchors the Heart. A double-walled sac around the heart composed of a fibrous pericardium(outside layer) and a serous pericardium(inside two-layered layer). Allows heart to work in relatively friction-free environment.
658108424Serous Pericardium2 layered inside layer/sac around the heart. internal surface(lines fibrous pericardium) and the visceral layer(lines the surface of the heart). Both these layers are separated by fluid-filled pericardial cavity.
658108425Epicardiumvisceral layer of the serous pericardium
658108426Myocardiumcardiac muscle layer forming the bulk of the heart
658108427Endocardiuminner layer of myocardial surface (blood touches when atria/ventricles are filled)
658108428Atria(s)receiving chambers of the heart
658108429Right Atriablood enters from superior/inferior vena cava & coronary sinus to here. passes to Right Ventricle then lungs to be filled with oxygen.
658108430Left Atriablood enters from pulmonary veins, sent to Left Ventricle then to rest of systemic circuit.
658108431Ventriclesdischarging chambers of the heart
658108432Right Ventriclepumps blood into the pulmonary trunk, to lungs to become oxygenated
658108433Left Ventriclepumps blood into aorta, which leads to rest of body being fed oxygen
658108434Pathway of BloodR. Atrium - Tricuspid Valve - R. Ventricle - Pulmonary Semi-lunar Valve - Pulmonary Arteries - Lungs - Pulmonary Veins - L. Atrium - Bicuspid Valve - L. Ventricle - Aortic Semi-lunar Valve - Aorta - Systemic Circulation
658108435Coronary CirculationLeft Ventricle - Aorta - back to left ventricle - major vessels of the heart
658108436Valvesensure one directional blood flow through the heart (no backflow)
658108437Atrioventricular Valve(AV valves) lie between the atria and ventricles. prevent back-flow of blood into atria when ventricles contract. 2 of them: Right = tricuspid Left = Bicuspid.
658108438Chordae TendinaeAnchor AV valves to papillary muscles of the heart.
658108439Semilunar Valvesprevent back-flow of blood into ventricles when contracted by ventricles
658108440Aortic Semilunar Valvelies between Left Ventricle and the Aorta
658108441Pulmonary Semilunar Valvelies between Right Ventricle and Pulmonary Trunk
658108442Cardiac MuscleStimulated by nerves and is self-excitable. Striated with intercalated discs that anchor cells together(also allows free passage of ions). Long contractions (250ms vs. 1-2ms of skeletal muscle).
658108443Autorhythmic CellsMake up 1% of heart cells. These cells make up the AV & SA nodes.
658108444resting heart rate70 beats per minute
658108445Sinoatrial NodeSA Node. Generates impulses about 75times/minutes.
658108446Atrioventricular NodeAV Node. delays impulse approximately 0.1 second
658108447Bundle of Hisimpulse pass from atria to ventricles via AV bundle (also known as Atrioventricular Bundle). Bundle splits into two pathways which carry impulse toward Apex of heart.
658108448Purkinje FibersCarry heart impulses to the Apex and Ventricullar Walls
658108449Extrinsic Innervationheart is stimulated by the sympathetic cardioacceleratory center in the Medulla. Innervates the SA and AV Nodes.
658108450P WaveCorresponds to depolarization of the Atria
658108451QRS WaveCorresponds to depolarization of the Ventricles
658108452T Wavecorresponds to repolarization of the Ventricles
658108453Atrial Repolarizationmasked by the larger QRS wave of the ventricles
658108454SystoleContraction of the heart muscle (also closing of AV valves)
658108455Diastolerelaxation of the heart muscle (also filling of the ventricles with blood)
658108456Cardiac Outputthe amount of blood pumped by each ventricle in one minute. CO = HR x SV
658108457Heart Ratethe number of heart beats per minute
658108458Stroke Volumethe amount of blood pumped out by a ventricle with each beat (average 70ml/s)
658108459Blood PressureBP = CO x PR
658108460Peripheral Resistanceforce against blood flow
658108461factors affecting stroke volume1. preload 2. contractility 3. afterload
658108462frank starling lawThe greater the stretch the longer the contraction (up to a point)
658108463Increased Contractilityincreased sympathetic stimuli, certain hormones, Ca+2 and some drugs
658108464Decreased Contractilityacidosis, increased K+, calcium channel blockers and drugs
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Evolution Flashcards

AP Bio Evolution Test

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655934327morphological species concepteach species is defined by distinct physical characteristics advantage: species concept is that it can be used to diagnose new species in the fossil record disadvantage: some trait differences are subtle
655934328phylogenetic species conceptstates that an evolutionary family tree is used to identify species based on a common ancestor advantage: does not rely on morphological traits to define species
655934329biological species conceptmembers of one species interbreed and have a shared gene pool, and each species is reproductively isolated from other species advantage: can designate species even when trait differences may be difficult to find disadvantage: this concept cannot be applied to asexually producing organisms, fossils, or species that could possibly interbreed if they lived near one another
655934330reproductive isolating mechanismsfor two species to be separate, gene flow must not occur between them any structural, functionl, or behavioral characteristic that prevents successful reproduction from occuring
655934331prezygotic isolating mechanismsanatomical or behavioral differences between members of two species that prevent mating or make it unlikely fertilization will take place if mating occurs.
656237114Habitat isolationoccurs when two species occupy different habitats, even within the same geographic range, so that they are less likely to meet and to attempt to reproduce (prezygotic)
656237115temporal isolationoccurs when two species live in the same location, but each reproduces at a different time of year, so they do not attempt to mate (prezygotic)
656237116behavioral isolationresults from differences in mating behavior between two species (prezygotic)
656237117mechanical isolationthe result of differences between two species in reproductive structures or other body parts, so that mating is prevented (prezygotic)
656237118gamete isolationincludes incompatibility of gametes of two different species so they cannot fuse to form a zygote; an egg may have receptors only for the sperm of its own species or a plant stigma prevents copletion of pollination (prezygotic)
656237119Postzygotic isolating mechanismsprevent development of a hybrid after mating has taken place
656237120Hybrid inviabilitywhen hybrids do not live to reproduce (postzygotic)
656237121Hybrid sterilityoccurs when the hybrid offspring are sterile ex: mules (postzygotic)
656237122hybridsoffspring of parents of two different species
656237123modes of speciationthe splitting of one species into two or more species (caldogenesis) or the transformation of one species into a new species (anagenesis)
656237124cladogenesisthe splitting of one species into two more species
656237125anagenesisthe transformation of one species into a new species
656237126allopatric speciationwhen new species result from populations being separated by a geographical barrier that prevents their members from reproducing each other
656237127sympatric speciationoccurs when members of a single population develop a genetic difference (e.g. chromosome number) that prevenst them from reproducing with the parent type
656237128polyploideukaryote with three or more complete sets of chromosomes -predominately seen in plants -can reproduce with itself but not with the 2n population -sympatric selection
656237129autoploidyoccurs when a diploid plant produces diploid gametes due to nodisjunction during meiosis -triploid (3n) plant is sterile because chromosomes cannot pair during meiosis -if 2 diploid gametes fuse, the plant is a tretraploid (4n) and the plant is fertile, so long as it reproduces with another of its own kind -sympatric speciation
656237130alloploidyrequires 2 different but related species of plants to hybridize -when hybridization occurs, it is followed by chromosome doubling -ex: wheat plant used to produced bread, the parents of present day wheat had 28 and 14 chromosomes so the hybrid with 21 chromosomes is sterile, but bread wheat with 43 chromosomes is fertile since the chromosomes can pair during meiosis -sympatric speciation
656237131adaptive radiationa type of allopatric speciation and occurs when a single ancestral species gives rise to a variety of species, each adapted to a specific environment ex: Darwin's finches - 13 species from 1 founder mainland finch ex: Hawaiian Islands - wide variety of honeycreepers descended from one goldfinch-like ancestor; silversword plants that radiated from ancestral tarweeds fit into different niches
656237132ecological nicheswhere a species lives and how it interacts with other species
656237133convergent evolutionsimilar biological trait evolves in two unrelated species as a result of exposure to similar environments - analogous traits
656237134analogous traitsthose that evolve convergently in two unrelated lineages because of a response to a similar lifestyle or habitat (marsupials and flying squirrels)
656237135coevolutioncases where two or more species reciprocally affect each other's evolution ex: pollinators/flowers; predator/prey; pathogenes/immune systems
656237136macroevolutionevolution of a new species and higher levels of classification -gradualistic model -punctuated equilibrum model
656237137gradualistic modelof macroevolution - speciation occurs after populations become isolated, with each group continuing slowly on its own evolutionary pathway - in this model, ancestral species gradually gives rise to two separate species
656237138punctuated equilibrium modelperiods of equilbrium (no change) are puncuated (or interrupted) by speciation - suggests that transitional links are less likely to become fossils and less likely to be found
656237139homeotic genesbring about radical changes in body shapes and organs - Pax6 genes involved in eye formation in all organisms - Finches: gene for bone morphogenic protein 4 (Bmp4) determines how deep or tall the beak will be. The gene from calmodulin (CaM) regulates how long a beak will grow
656237140Homeotic (HOX)determine the locatin of repeated structures in all vertebrat - bring changes in body shapes and organs - despite millions of years of diveregent evolution, all animals share the same developmental control switches - control the number and appearances of repeated structures along the main body axes of vertebrtates
656237141heterochronya change in the timing of developmental events for example, a change in timing might slow down the development of one body part/region
656237142allometric growthwhen some part of the organism grows at a different rate from teh rest of the organism during development ex: for example, neck vertebrae of fetal giraffees must grow at a faster rate than the rest of their body
656237143paedomorphosisretention by an organism of juvenile or even larval traits into later life ex: Human flat face when compared to that of chimps
656237144Macroevolution is not goal-orientedthe trends een in the evolution of horses are: overall size, toe reduction, change in tooth size and shape. But its not straight-line evolution as seen through fossils but a thick bush. Adaptation occurs because the members of a population with an advantage are able to have more offspring
656237145systematic biologystudy of understanding the evolutionary history of life on Earth and uses traits to infer the evolutionary relationships among organism
656237146taxonomybranch of bio identifying, naming, classifying organisms
656237147classificationprocess of naming and assigning organisms or groups of organism to a taxon
656237148Linnean Taxonomybinomial nomenclature (scientific name) classifcation hierarchy - species, genus, family, order, class phylum, kingdom, domain
656237149binomial systemtwo part Latin name (scientific name) genes and then species both names are italicized or underlined, first letter of genus is capitalized
656237150phylogenyevolutionary history of a groupd of organisms classification reflects phylogney
656237151derived characterpresent only in a specific line of descent
656237152ancestral characteristicstraits shared by the ancestor and the species in its lines of descent
656237153cladisticsanalyze primitive and derived characteristics and constructs cladograms on the basis of shared derived characteristics
656237154cladogramdiagram that shows relationships among species based on shared, derived characters: a cladogram thus traces evoutionary history of the group being studied
656237155cladeevolutionary branch that includes a common ancestor and all its descendent species
656237156nodepoint where 2 lineages intersect and represent a shared common ancestor
656237157rootorigin of species's shared ancestry
656237158extinctionan exinct taxon is represented by a shortened branch on the phylogenetic tree
656237159monophyletic groupalso known as a clade, a group of species and their common ancestor
656237160parisomnyminimum number of assumptions is most logical and the best cladogram is one with the fewest nmber of shared derived charcteristics left unexplained or minimizes the number of evolutionary changes
656237161homologycharacter similarity that stems from common ancestry
656237162homologous structuresrelated to each other through common descent but my differ in structure and function (ex: forelimbs of horse and wings of bat)
656237163molecular traitseach distinct lineage accumulates changes in DNA base pair sequences and amino acid sequences in proteins over time -protein comparison/amino acid sequences (cytochrome c) -molecular clocks - nucleic acids are not tied to adaptation, fossil record can be used to calibarte the clock and confirm molecular data - DNA barcoding could catalogue biodiversity
656237164LUCAlast universal common ancestor First Traits: -metabolism - first protocells may have used preformed ATP but natural selection would favor cells that could extract energy from carbohydrates to transform ADP to ATP *glycolysis *hetertroph - if fermenter living on organic molecules in organic soup *if evolved in hydrothermal vents then could have been chemosynthetic and autotrphs *anaerobic - no free O2 so must have been able to perform fermentation --prokaryotic --unicellular --asexual
656237165Stages of origin of life1. evolution of monomers 2. evolution of polymers 3. evolution of protocells/protobiont 4. evolution of self-replication system
656237166Evolution of monomershypothesis 1: monomers cam from reactions in atmosphere - Primordial soup hypothesis (Oparin/Haldane) - (miller/Urey) showed experimentally that methane, ammonia, hydrogen, water reacted to produce small organic molcules (amino acids, organic acids) hypothesis 2: monomers came from reaction in ocean thermal vents (iron-sulfur world) - thermal vents emit carbon monoxide, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide...iron and nickle sulfide act as catalysts for inorganic --> organic molecules hypothesis 3: monomers from outer space (Panspermia) -comets and meteorites, with organic chemicals, have pelted Earth
656237167evolution of polymershypothesis 1: iron-sulfur world hypothesis -minerals have charged surface that attracts amino acids and provides electrons so they bond hypothesis 2: protein-first hypothesis (Sidney Fox) - amino acids collected in shallow puddles along rocky shore; heat of sun caused them to form proteinoids (small polypeptides that have some catalytic properties) hypothesis 3: RNA-first hypothesis- only the macromolecule RNA was needed at the beginning to lead to the first cell - RNA can be both a substrate and an enzyme (Cech) and would carr out processes of life associated with DNA (in genes) and protein enzymes
656237168Evolution of Protocells/ protobiontwould have a lipid-protein membrane and carry on metabolism 1. Fox showed that if lipids are made available to microspheres, lipids become associated with microspeheres producing a lipid-protein membarne and when go to water, form microspheres of protein which assumes DNA genes cam after protein enzymes; DNA replication needs protein enzymes 2. Oparin showed a protocell could have developed form Coacervate droplets (sperical units that spontaneously form when concentrated mixtures of macromolecules are hled in right temperature, ionic composition, pH..) 3 limosomes - lipids would naturally organize themselves into doulbe-layerd bubbles -membrane first hypothesis - first cell had to have a plasma membrane before any other parts
656237169evolution of a self-replication systemin living systems, information flows from DNA to RNA to protein, and its possible this developed in stages -RNA-first hypothesis - first genes and enzymes were RNA molecules and they would have directed and carried out protein synthesis, ribozymes are RNA that acts as enzymes, retroviruses have reverse transcriptase and could have given rise to first DNA -protein first hypothesis - only after protocell develops complex enzymes could it form nucleic acids from small molecules, because it is complicated, so the chance that RNA arose on its own is minimal
656237170Earth formed4.6 bya
656237171first cell3.8 bya
656237172Precambrian87% of geological time scale - early bacteria resembling those in hot springs today -3.46 bya photosynthetic prokaryotic cells appear, oxygen from photosynthesis caused atmosphere to become oxidizing rather than reducing and by 2 bya, anearobic prokaryotes declined -O2 forms ozone or O3 in upper atmosphere to block UV rays and allow organisms to live on land -stromatolites - cyanobacteria
656237173Endosymbiotic theoryEukaryote cells (2.1 bya) nucleated cells engulfed prokaryotes which became organells evidence: - mitochondria/chloroplast same size as bacteria, have own DNA and make some of own proteins, divide by binary fission, outer membrane differe from inner which is bacteria like - ssu-rRNA seuqences of the organelle ribosomes are similar to that of bacteria; organelle DNA is circular and lacks introns
656237174Multicellularity Arisesmultiple times 600-545 MYA, and were soft bodied early invertebrates
656237175Cambrian Animalssaw invertebrates diversify
656237176continental drifttduring permean period, Pangea, and explains geological characteristics of earth and unique fossil distribution and distinct mammals on different continents
656237177mass extinctions5 Mass extinctions - Cretaceous: asteroid that explodes producing meteorites striking Earth (layer of iridium soot in correct strata, huge crater in gulf of mexico) -permian - 90% of ocean species and 70% of land species disappeared due to excess co2 due to change in ocean circulation from lack of polar ice
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Intro Cell Biology - Ch. 11 Facts and Lecture Notes Flashcards

SHSU Spring 2013
BIO 2440
Essential Cell Biology 3e, (Alberts, et al)

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686289313plasma membraneFatty film so thin and transparent that it cannot be seen directly in the light of the light microscope. Structure is based on a two-ply sheet of lipid molecules about 5 nm - or 50 atoms - thick. Is penetrated by highly selective channels and pumps - protein molecules that allow specific substances to be imported and others to be exported. Is also involved in cell communication as well as cell growth and motility.
686289314internal membranesIn eucaryotic cells, additional membranes that enclose intracellular compartments to form the various individual organelles, including the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, and mitochondria. Prevents molecules on one side from mixing with molecules on the other. Subtle differences in the composition of these membranes, especially in their resident proteins, gives each organelle its distinctive character.
686289315cell membranesRegardless of their location, all are composed of lipids and proteins and share a common general structure: the lipids are arranged in two closely apposed sheets, forming a lipid bilayer. (Refers to both plasma and internal membranes.)
686289316lipidMolecule that combines two very different properties: a hydrophilic ("water-loving") head and one or two hydrophobic ("water-fearing") hydrocarbon tails.
686289317phospholipidMost abundant lipids in a cell.
686289318phosphotidylcholineMost common type of phospholipid in most cell membranes which has five parts: the small molecule choline attached to a phosphate as its hydrophilic head which is linked to a glycerol, which in turn is linked to two long hydrocarbon chains that form its hydrophobic tails.The two hydrocarbon tails originate as fatty acids - that is, hydrocarbon chains with a -COOH group at one end - which become attached to glycerol via their -COOH groups. A kink in one of the hydrocarbon chains occurs where there is a double bond between two carbon atoms.
686289319sterolsAmphipathic molecules (such as cholesterol found in animal cell membranes).
686289320glycolipidsAmphipathic molecules which have sugars as part of their hydrophilic head. It is a carbohydrate attached to a phospholipid. Located mainly in the plasma membrane and found only in the noncytosolic half of the bilayer - which ensures that they will be on the exterior of the cell when vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane.
686289321hydrophilic moleculesDissolve readily in water because they contain charged atoms or polar groups, that is, chemical groups with an uneven distribution of positive and negative charges; these charged atoms can form electrostatic attractions or hydrogen bonds with water molecules, which are themselves polar.
686289322hydrophobic moleculesInsoluable in water because all - or almost all - of their atoms are uncharged and nonpolar; they therefore cannot form favorable interactions with water molecules. Instead, these nonpolar atoms force adjacent water molecules to reorganize into a cagelike structure around the hydrophobic molecule.
688618332properties that affect fluidity of membranes1. length of hydrophobic tails 2. level of undaturation; the number of double bonds in fatty acids 3. presence of sterols/steroids
688618333hydrophobic tailsDo not like water because they are uncharged and nonpolar, they cannot form bonds with water
688618334hydrophilic headsLike water because they contain charged atoms or polar groups that can form electrostatic bonds or hydrogen bonds with water
688618335amphipathicHave both hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties
688618336phospholipidsProvide basic structure and serve as a permeability barrier. What a cell makes in higher temps to reduce fluidity because it has more carbons and more saturation.
688618337proteinsProvide most of the other functions of the membrane and give different membranes their individual characteristics
688618338all membranesHave similar structure.
688618339Davson and Danielli modelIn 1935 took all of the available information and said this is what we think membrane structures are made of: phospholipids that form a bilayer sandwiched between an outer layer of proteins.
688618340Singer and NicholsonIn 1972 came up with the Fluid Mosaic model (fluid like salad dressing): phospholipid bilayer that has proteins with very stable structures inserted in it.
688618341properties that affect permeability1. Length of hydrophobic tails 2. Level of unsaturation or the number of double bonds in fatty acids.
688618342Shorter fatty acidsReduce the tendency of the tails to interact with one another -> increase fluidity, increase permeability (usually have 18-20 carbons, range is 14-24)
688618343decreased temperaturesResults in a less fluid bilayer (think cold butter)
688618344increased temperaturesResults in a more fluid bilayer (think hot butter)
688618346several double bondsResults in bilayers are more fluid than those with more saturation, increased permeability.
688618347bacterial cellsAre procaryotic.
688618348yeast cellsAre a fungus that are eucaryotic
688618349bacterial and yeast cellsWill have to adapt to varying temperatures and constantly adjusting the length of the fatty acids and their saturation to maintain membrane at constant fluidity (i.e. add carbons to make it longer, removing carbons to make shorter, or introducing or removing double bonds.)
688618350presence of sterolsIn animal cells: fluidity can be regulated with the inclusion of cholesterol.
688618351cholesterolFills space between fatty acid tails which are saturated and those which are unsaturated, making it more rigid and less permeable
688618352asymmetryDescribes the structure of a phospholipid bilayer because both saturated and unsaturated phospholipids are present. Is established when the membrane is synthesized.
688618353cytosolic side of ERWhere enzymes for membrane synthesis are located.
688618354membrane synthesisOccurs especially when a cell has just divided or is dividing.
688618355vesiclesIn eukaryotic cells allow membranes to move from one part of the cell to another. Because they pinch off and fuse with other parts of cell, the membrane has a distinct "inside" and "outside" face.
688618356cytosolic faceIs always adjacent to the cytosol.
688618357noncytosolic faceIs exposed to either the cell exterior or the interior space of an organelle.
688618358golgiWhere enzymes which add the carbohydrates to the lipid are located.
688618359integral membrane proteinsDirectly attach to membranes, need to disrupt the phospholipid bilayer to extract these proteins.
688618360peripheral membrane proteinsNot directly attached to membranes and the phospholipid bilayer does not need to disrupted to extract. May be bound to an integral membrane protein by an ionic, hydrophobic, or hydrogen bond.
688618361cell cortexFramework of proteins attached to the membrane with transmembrane proteins to provide support by reinforcing the extremely thin and fragile plasma membrane. This protein framework is important for the cell to have proper shape.
688997852functional classes of membrane proteins1. TRANSPORTERS - transport particular nutrients, metabolites, and ions across the lipid bilayer 2. ANCHORS - some anchor the membrane to macromolecules such as microtubules, microfilaments, or members of the cytoskeleton on either side 3. RECEPTORS - detect chemical signals in the cell's environment and relay them to the cell interior 4. ENZYMES - catalyze specific reactions
688997853types of associations between membrane proteins and the lipid bilayer1. TRANSMEMBRANE - extend across the bilayer as a single α helices, or as a rolled-up β sheet (called a β barrel). 2. MONOLAYER-ASSOCIATED - Anchored to cytosolic surface by an amphipathic alpha helix. 3. LIPID-LINKED - peripheral proteins that have a strong, covalent attachment to a phospholipid. 4. PROTEIN-ATTACHED - peripheral proteins that have a weak, noncovalent interactions (ionic, hydrophobic, or hydrogen bonded) with other transmembrane proteins.
688997854alpha helixMost common part of protein to span the membrane. Its hydrophobic amino acid side chains don't like water and stay in contact with the hydrophobic hydrocarbon tails of the phospholipid molecules, while the hydrophilic parts of the polypeptide backbone form hydrogen bonds with one another on the interior of the helix. An α helix containing approximately 20 amino acids are required to transverse the membrane.
688997855transmembrane hydrophilic poreCan be formed by multiple α helices. The hydrophobic amino acid side chains on one side of each helix contact the hydrophobic hydrocarbon tails, while the hydrophilic side chains on the opposite side of the helices forma water-filled pore.
688997856porin proteinsTransmembrane proteins that form water-filled channels in the outer membrane of a bacterium. It is a β pleated sheet spanning the membrane, curved into a cylinder.
688997857detergent moleculesUsed to extract membrane proteins. They have both a hydrophobic tail and hydrophilic head and can dissolve membranes. It disrupts the lipid bilayer and brings the proteins into solution as protein -detergent complexes. The phospholipids in the membrane are also solubilized by them. (Ex: laundry and dish soaps.)
688997858micellesSmall clusters, as opposed to a bilayer, of detergent molecules that are shaped like cones which have a hydrophilic head and a single hydrophobic tail.
688997859spectrinA long, think, flexible rod about 100 nm in length. It forms a meshwork that provides support for the plasma membrane and maintains the cell's shape. The meshwork is connected to the membrane through intracellular attachment proteins that link it to specific transmembrane proteins. Found in human red blood cells.
688997860oligosaccharidesShort chains of sugars linked to proteins called glycoproteins in the plasma membrane. (Approx. 12 monomers, maybe 15-20 at most, but not usually more.)
688997861proteoglycansPlasma membrane proteins that have one or more long polysaccharide chains attached to them.
688997862glycoproteinsPlasma membrane proteins that have short chains of sugars, called oligosaccharides, liked to them.
688997863carbohydrate layer (composition)It is a sugar coating formed by all of the carbohydrate on the glycoproteins, proteoglycans, and glycolipids and is located on on the external, noncytosolic, side of the membrane. (Made of the oligosaccharide side chains attached to the membrane glycolipids and glycoproteins, and of the polysaccharide chains on membrane proteoglycans.)
688997864carbohydrate layer (function)1. Helps to protect the cell from mechanical and chemical damage. 2. Allows cell to have a slimy surface which allows it to squeeze through narrow spaces, involved in cell lubrication. 3. Is important in cell-cell recognition and adhesion. 4. Often described as sticky oligosaccharides because it helps keep cells in contact with each other.
688997865ways of restriction of lateral mobility of plasma membrane proteins1. Proteins can be tethered to the cell cortex inside the cell. 2. Proteins can be tethered to the extracellular matrix molecules outside the cell. 3. Proteins can be tethered to proteins on the surface of another cell. 4. Diffusion barriers can restrict proteins to a particular membrane domain.
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The Science of Biology Flashcards

http://v7.k12.com/curriculum/subjects/sample_lessons/highschool_b2b_demo/Biology/CLICK_TO_START.htm

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695378964BiologyThe study of living things.
695378965EnzymesProteins that speed up the chemical reactions that make life possible.
695378966What are enzymes functions?speed up chemical reactions, do not change in a chemical reaction, are sensitive to surrounding conditions, and lower activation energy.
695378967LactaseEnzyme that breaks apart the lactose molecule. Without it, causes lactose intolerance.
695378968CatalystCompound that changes the speed of a chemical reaction without itself being changed by the reaction,
695378969Are all proteins enzymes?No.
695378970What makes is possible for the body to digest a milk product?Breaking apart the disaccharide lactose molecule into two monosaccharide molecules.
695378971What happens when the full lactose molecule is not absorbed completely?Abdominal cramps and other symptoms from consuming too much lactose.
695378972How many different enzymes are there in the human body?1500.
695378973What does the suffix *ase* indicate?That a chemical is an enzyme/
695378974What does amylases do?Breaks up starches.
695378975What does cellulases do?Break up cellulose fibers/ remove tiny fibers from cotton cloth that make the cloth stiff and clothes dull/ preventing pilling (small fuzz balls).
695378976LipasesBreaks up oils and fats.
695378977ProteasesBreaks up proteins.
695378978Can enzymes recognize and interact with specific molecules?Yes.
695378979What other roles do enzymes partake in your body?They play roles in building the structural proteins that make up your body and help your body quickly rid of extra carbon/ maintain homeostasis.
695378980What enzyme is structures to interact with molecules of lactose?Lactase
695378981SubstrateThe molecule that an enzyme interacts with.
695378982Active siteThe region of the enzyme that recognized the substrate. It often appears as a groove or indentation of the surface of the enzyme, into which that substrate fits.
695378983Substrate moleculesbind to an enzyme's active site to produce an enzyme*substrate complex. Once bound, the enzyme shifts its shape slightly, bringind its peptide chains in closer contact with the substrate molecule, much like a catcher's mitt clasping a baseball.
695378984ProductThe end result of an enzyme catalyzed reaction.
695378985Galactose and glucose are the products of what reaction?Enzyme substrate complex.
695378986Protein synthesisThe amino end of one amino acid forms a peptide bond with the carboxyl end of another.
695378987An enzyme that can hold both substrates together in proper orientation helps what?Ensure that peptide bonds can form b/w amino acids.
695378988Activation energyThe amount of energy required for a reaction to take place.
695378989With the amount of enzyme held constant, as the concentration of substrate increases, ...the rate of the reaction also increases.
695378990CoenzymesTemporary parts of enzymes that move about and temporarily bind with an enzyme, then move on and interact with other enzymes.
695378991ZincZn
695378992CopperCu
695378993CofactorsCompounds required by certain enzymes.
695378994pHhow acidic or basic the environment is.
695378995Does the pH of an enzymes environment effect an enzymes activities?yes.
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Bailey's Multiplication Flashcards

Multiplication Tables 1 - 12

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4332598093 x 26
4332598103 x 39
4332598113 x 412
4332598123 x 515
4332598133 x 618
4332816953 x 721
4332816963 x 824
4332816973 x 927
4332816983 x 1030
4332816993 x 1133
4332817003 x 1236
4332817014 x 28
4332817024 x 312
4332817034 x 416
4332817044 x 520
4332817054 x 624
4332817064 x 728
4332817074 x 832
4332817084 x 936
4332817094 x 1040
4332817104 x 1144
4332817114 x 1248
4332817125 x 210
4332817135 x 315
4332817145 x 420
4332817155 x 525
4332817165 x 630
4332817175 x 735
4332817185 x 840
4332817195 x 945
4332817205 x 1050
4332817215 x 1155
4332817225 x 1260
4332817236 x 212
4332817246 x 318
4332817256 x 424
4332817266 x 530
4332817276 x 636
4332817286 x 742
4332817296 x 848
4332817306 x 954
4332817316 x 1060
4332817326 x 1166
4332817336 x 1272
4332817347 x 214
4332817357 x 321
4332817367 x 428
4332817377 x 535
4332817387 x 642
4332817397 x 749
4332817407 x 856
4332817417 x 963
4332817427 x 1070
4332817437 x 1177
4332817447 x 1284
4332817458 x 216
4332817468 x 324
4332817478 x 432
4332817488 x 540
4332817498 x 648
4332817508 x 756
4332817518 x 864
4332817528 x 972
4332817538 x 1080
4332817548 x 1188
4332817558 x 1296
4332817569 x 218
4332817579 x 327
4332817589 x 436
4332817599 x 545
4332817609 x 654
4332817619 x 763
4332817629 x 872
4332817639 x 981
4332817649 x 1090
4332817659 x 1199
4332817669 x 12108
43328176711 x 222
43328176811 x 333
43328176911 x 444
43328177011 x 555
43328177111 x 666
43328177211 x 777
43328177311 x 888
43328177411 x 999
43328177511 x 10110
43328177611 x 12121
43328177712 x 224
43328177812 x 336
43328177912 x 448
43328178012 x 560
43328178112 x 672
43328178212 x 784
43328178312 x 896
43328178412 x 9108
43328178512 x 10120
43328178612 x 11132
43328178712 x 12144
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Math Multiplication Flash Cards Easy Version Flashcards

Easy math multiplication flash cards for anybody who needs to study math.

-McGirl

Terms : Hide Images
3088414442x2
3088414562x3
3088414682x4
30884147102x5
30884148122x6
30884149142x7
30884150162x8
30884151182x9
30884152202x10
3088415363x2
3088415493x3
30884155123x4
30884156153x5
30884157183x6
30884158213x7
30884159243x8
30884160273x9
30884161303x10
3088416284x2
30884163124x3
30884164164x4
30884165204x5
30884166244x6
30884167284x7
30884168324x8
30884169364x9
30884170404x10
30884171105x2
30884172155x3
30884173205x4
30884174255x5
30884175305x6
30884176355x7
30884177405x8
30884178455x9
30884179505x10
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AP Biology Root Words Flashcards

Essential 100 root words for AP Biology.

Terms : Hide Images
679215482a(n)-not/without
679215483ab-from/away/off
679215484ad-to/toward/near
679215485alb-white/pale
679215486amphi-both/around
679215487an-without
679215488ante-before/in front
679215489antho-flower
679215490anthro-human
679215491anti-against/opposite
679215492aqua-water
679215493arch(ae/i)-primitive/ancient/beginning
679215494arthro-joint
679215495auto-self
679215496bi-two
679215497bio-life
679215498brachi-arm
679215499calc-stone
679215500cauda-tail
679215501ceph(al)-head
679215502cerebro-brain
679215503chlor-green
679215504chondr-cartilage
679215505chrom-color/pigment
679215506com-together
679215507con-with
679215508contra-against/opposite
679215509corp-body
679215510crani-skull
679215511cyan-blue
679215512cyt-cell
679215513dactyl-finger
679215514decid-falling off
679215515dendr-tree
679215516dent-tooth
679215517derm-skin
679215518di-two
679215519eco-house/habitation
679215520ecto-outer/outside
679215521endo-inner/within
679215522epi-upon/beside/among
679215523eu-true/good
679215524ex-outside/from
679215525exo-outside
679215526extra-beyond
679215527fasc-connection/bundle/bandage
679215528foli-leaf
679215529gastr-stomach/belly
679215530gnath-jaw
679215531haem/hem-blood
679215532haplo-single
679215533hemi-half/partial
679215534hetero-different/other
679215535homo-same/alike
679215536hydr-liquid/water
679215537hyper-too much/above/excessive
679215538hypo-too little/below
679215539ichthy-fish
679215540infra-beneath/below
679215541inter-between/among
679215542intra-within/inside
679215543iso-same/equal
679215544lysis-destroy/breakdown
679215545macr-large
679215546maxi-greatest
679215547meso-middle
679215548mono-one/single
679215549morph-form
679215550multi-many/more than one
679215551myo-muscle
679215552neo-new/recent
679215553non-without/no
679215554oligo-few/little
679215555oo-egg
679215556ortho-straight
679215557oss/ost-bone
679215558ovo-egg
679215559para-beside
679215560peri-around/enclosing
679215561phag-eat
679215562phil-love/affinity for
679215563photo-light
679215564poly-many/more than one
679215565pre-earlier/in front of
679215566pro-before/preceding
679215567pseud-false
679215568sacchar-sugar
679215569som-body
679215570strat-layer
679215571sub-under/lower
679215572super-higher quality/quantity
679215573sym/syn-together/with
679215574tele/telo-far/distant/end
679215575therm-temperature/heat
679215576trans-across/through
679215577trich-hair
679215578troph-feeding/nourishment/nutrition
679215579uro-tail/posterior
679215580ventr-belly
679215581visc-thick/resistance
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Summa Math Formulas Flashcards

2300 Goal A Math
Fall 2012

Terms : Hide Images
454972395Integerpositive and negative whole numbers
454972396Even Numbers0, -2, -4, ...
454972397Odd Numbers1, 3, 5, ...
454972398Even/Odd Resultseven+/-even=even even*even=even odd+-odd=even even*odd=even even+odd=odd odd*odd=odd
454972399Rational Numbera number that can be represented by a fraction where both the numerator and the denominator are integers and the denominator is not zero
454972400Sum of Interior AnglesS=180(n-2)
454972401Sum of Exterior Angles360
454972402Area of a TriangleA=1/2*b*h
454972403Triangle Inequalitythe sum of the lengths of any two sides is greater than the length of the third side AB + AC > BC [AB - AC] < BC < AB + AC
454972404Equilateral Triangle3 equal sides 3 60-degree angles split into 2 30-60-90 triangles
454972405Isosceles Triangle2 equal sides 2 equal angles
454972406Right Trianglea^2 + b^2 = c^2 3-4-5 5-12-13
454972407Special Right Triangles30-60-90 = 1:root3:2 45-45-90 = 1:1:root2
454972408Congruent TrianglesS-S-S S-A-S A-S-A
454972409Similar TrianglesA-A 2 Sides in same proportion and Angle in between is the same A1:A2=L1^2:L2^2
454972410Parallelogramsopposite sides congruent opposite angles congruent diagonals bisect each other Area=altitude*side
454972411RectanglesA=L*W P=2L+2W Diagonals equal length
454972412SquareA=S^2 P=4S Diagonal is root2 times side
454972413Area TrapezoidA=[(B1+B2)*H]/2
454972414Area HexagonA=(3*root3/2)*r^2
454972415Arithmetic SequenceAn=A1+(n-1)d
454972416Geometric SequencesAn=A1(r)^n-1
454972417Unionconsists of all of the elements that appear in either set without repeating elements
454972418Intersectionconsists of all the elements that appear in both sets
454972419Percentspart/whole = %/100
454972420Percentage Change([old-new]/old)*100%
454972421Probability#successful events / total# possible outcomes
457879331Weighted Averages(avg1)(number1) + (avg2)(number2) = (avgT)(numberT)
457879332Medianmiddle number (or average of 2) of set from smallest to largest
457879333Modethe most frequently occurring number in a set
457879334Fundamental Counting Principlemultiply number of choices available in each option to get total number of options
457879335Permutationsorder matters!!! nPr=n! / (n-r)!
457879336Combinationsorder doesn't matter nCr=n! / r!(n-r)!
457879337Direct Variationx1/y1 = x2/y2
457879338Indirect Variationx1*y1 = x2*y2
457879339Length on an Arc= (x degree / 360) C
457879340Area of a Sector= (x degree / 360) pi*r^2
457879341Real Wheel FormulaR=rotations L=circumference, radii, diameters R1*L1=R2*L2
457879342Extension of the Pythagorean Theorem(distance between opposite vertices) square root(L^2+W^2+H^2)
457879343Volume of Prism(area of base)*height
457879344CylindersVolume=pi*r^2*h Surface Area=2*pi*r^2 + 2*pi*r*h
457879345Volume of SphereVolume=(4/3)*pi*r^3
457879346Volume of Cone(1/3)*pi*r^2*h
457879347Volume of Pyramid(1/3)*L*W*H
457879348Exponent Rulesnegative number raised to even power will be positive negative number raised to odd power will be negative numbers with absolute values between 0 and 1 will be a smaller distance from 0 the higher the power to which they are raised
458811584Adding/Subtracting Exponentsfactor out the common value 4^a + 4^a + 4^a + 4^a 4^a (1+1+1+1) 4^a * 4^1 4^a+1
458811585Distance Formulasquare root[(x2-x1)^2 + (y2-y1)^2]
458811586Distance/Work FormulaD=R*T W=R*T
458811587Combined RatesD/W=R1*T1 + R2*T2
458811588Same TimeD/W= (R1+R2)*T
458811589Same DistanceT(up)=D/R1 T(down)=D/R2 Add and solve for D
458811590Same WorkT(total)= (T1*T2)/(T1+T2) (same as finding combined rate of two workiers working on 1 thing)
459313964Same Rate(N1*T1)/W1 = (N2*T2)/W2 N=number of workers
459313965Average Rate(D1+D2) / (T1+T2) or use weighted average formula subsituting D and T with whatever 2 given
459313966Mixture FormulaP1(N1) + P2(N2) = Pfinal(Nfinal) P=percentage of acid N=amount of the solution
459313967Weighted AverageAVG1(N1) + AVG2(N2) = AVGtotal(Ntotal)
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Chapter 8: Memory Flashcards

1-4: Memory as Information Processing;
5-11: Encoding: Entering Information;
12-17: Storage: Retaining Information;
18-22: Retrieval: Accessing Information;
23-30: Forgetting;
31-37: Memory as a Constructive Process;
38-46: Memory and the Brain

Terms : Hide Images
590192764Memory3 processes (encoding, storage, and retrieval) and 3 main components (sensory, working, and long-term memory)
590192765Sensory MemoryBriefly holds incoming sensory information Some info reaches working and long-term, where it's mentally represented by visual, phonological, semantic, or motor codes
590192766Working MemoryProcesses limited amount of information and suports other cognitive functions Phonological, visuospacial, episodic, and executive components
590192767Long-term Memory (LTM)Stores large amounts of information for up to one lifetime
590192768Effortful ProcessingInvolves intention and conscious attention
590192769Automatic ProcessingOccurs without intention and requires minimal effort
590192770Deeper processingEnhances memory
590192771Elaborate rehearsal, maintenance rehearsal_________________ provides deeper processing than __________________ ER>MR
590192772Deeper EncodingFacilitated by hierarchies, chunking, dual coding (including visual imaging), and other mnemonic devices
590192773SchemasShape how we encode information and provide an important component of expertise
590192774People displaying exceptional memoryTake advantage of memory principles and mnemonic devices
590192775Associative Memory ModelsView LTM as network of associated nodes, with each node representing a concept or unit of information
590192776Neutral Network ModelsEach piece of information in memory is represented by unique pattern of multiple nodes that are simultaneously activated throughout the brain
590192777Declarative Long-term MemoriesInvolve factual knowledge and include episodic and semantic memories
590192778Procedural MemoryReflected in skills and action
590192779Explicit MemoryConscious or intentional memory retrieval
590192780Implicit MemoryInfluences our behavior without conscious awareness
590192781Retrieval CuesActivate information stored in LTM Retrieval more likely with multiple, self-generated, and distinctive clues
590192782Flashbulb MemoriesExperienced as vivid snapshots of events. We're confident of accuracy Over time, FBM become inaccurate Overall, memory accuracy and confidence are weakly to moderately related
590192783Encoding Specificity PrincipleMemory enhanced when cues present during retrieval match cues present during encoding
590192784Cues may involve...Same environment (Context-dependent memory) Same internal state (State-dependent memory)
590192785Mood StatesProvide exception. Tend to recall stimuli congruent with current mood
590192786Decay TheoryPhysical memory traces in LTM deteriorate with disuse over time
590192787Proactive InterferenceMaterial learned in past impairs recall of newer material
590192788Retroactive InterferenceNewly acquired material impairs ability to recall information learned earlier
590192789RepressionUnconscious process of motivated forgetting Suggested it may make us forget anxiety-arousing material
590192790Retrograde AmnesiaMemory loss for events that occurred before onset of amnesia
590192791Anterograde AmnesiaMemory loss for events after initial onset of amnesia
590192792Alzheimer's DiseaseProduces both types of amnesia and is leading cause of dementia among elderly
590192793Infantile AmnesiaInability to remember experiences from first few years of our lives
590192794Our schemasMay cause us to misremember events in ways fitting our preexisting concepts May lead us to recall events which never occurred
590192795Misinformation EffectsWhen memory is distorted by misleading post-event information
590192796Source ConfusionTendency to recognize something as familiar but forgot where it was encountered A possible cause of Misinformation effects
590192797Vulnerability to misinformation effects is greater:Among younger than older children When suggestive questions are asked repeatedly
590192798Accurate memories vs. sincerely believed false memoriesExperts cannot reliably tell between children reporting _______________________
590192799Psychologists debate whether...Child abuse memories are accurate and whether the abuse, if it occurred, was forgotten through repression or other psychological processes
590192800Concern of possibility of false memory...Leads many experts to urge caution in unconditionally accepting validity of recovered memories
590192801Sensory MemoryDepends on input from sensory systems and initial processing by cortical sensory areas
590192802Working MemoryInvolves network of brain regions
590192803Frontal LobesKey role in performing executive functions of working memory
590192804HippocampusHelps consolidate long-term declarative memories
590192805Cerebral CortexStores declarative memories across distributed sites
590192806AmygdalaEncodes emotionally arousing aspects of events
590192807CerebellumHelps form procedural memories
590192808ThalamusDamage to ________ can produce severe amnesia
590192809As memories form...Complex chemical and structural changes that enhance synaptic efficiency occur in neurons
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Chapters 6 & 7 Learning and Memory Flashcards

Conditioning and learning, Memory

Terms : Hide Images
499086157learninga relatively permanent change in behavior
499086158how is learning measured?Testing, refinements, change in intensity, change in speed, change in latency, change in frequency
499086159change in topographyrefinement: eg. learning to walk
499086160latencyhow long it takes to start the project; eg. Walmart self-checkout
499086161unconditioned stimulus (US)a stimulus that is capable of eliciting a response
499086162unconditioned responsea refelex naturally elicited by a unconditional stimulus
499086163conditioned stimulus (CS)a stimulus that creates response due to pairing with the US
499086164conditioned response (CR)a response elicited by the CS
499086165neutral stimulus (NS)a stimulus that does not create a response
499086166backward conditoningthe CS follows the US; eg. Little Albert experiment
499086167systematica type of desensitation/ slowly introduces the phobia (neutral stimulus)
499086168floodinga type of desensitation/ immediate flooding of the neutral stimulus/ could kill you
499086169paraphiliasexual deviancy/ rape, pedaphillia, etc.
499086170operant reinforcementlearning occurs through behavior and evaluation of the consequences of the behavior aka instrumental learning
499086171law of effecttheory of Edward Thorndike: the strength of the behavior depends on the consequences of the behavior
499086172reinforcementsalways increase the behavior will happen in the future
499086173punishmentsalways decrease the chances the behavior will occur in the future
499086174positivesomething you like
499086175negativesomething you do not like
499086176timingthe most important factor of conditioning; conditioning most effective if consequences are immediate and NOT delayed; eg. training your dog, correcting a child
499086177positive reinforcementyou do something, you get a reward; eg. go to work = get paid or teen fakes illness = gets attention (social reward)
499086178negative reinforcementtaking something away; eg. teen fakes sick = avoids a test or we have cold hands = put on gloves or have a headache = take an aspirin
499086179parital reinforcementreinforcers do not follow every response/ highly resistant to extinction; eg. casino slot machines
499086180cognitive learninghigher level larning involving thinking, knowing, understanding, and anticipation
499086181observational learningachieved by wtching and imitating the actions of another or noting the consequences of the those actions
499086182needed factors for observational learning to be effective:Attention, retention, ability to do, and motivation/ pay ATTENTION! REMEMBER TO DO WHAT MAKES YOU HAPPY
499086183memoryprocess that results int he storage of information for future use
499086184sensory memoryunaware but perfect data, for only a few seconds/ iconic: fleeting mental image or Echoic: breif continuation after a sound has been heard
499086185short-term memorymemory that hold about 7 items of info. and is very susceptible to interruptions. aka working memory
499086186maintenance rehearsalsilent rehearsal to prolong existence in STM
499086187elaborative rehearsallinks new information to exhisting information already in the LTM
499086188long-term memoryonly here if the info is either IMPORTANT OR MEANINGFUL/ inlimited storage space
499086189procedural memoryLTM/ muscle memory, learned skills; eg driving, typing
499086190declarative memoryLTM/ contains specific information, dates, faces, and names; eg your birthday
499086191semantic memorytype of declarative memory/ not personal, but exercised; eg. days of the week, language
499086192episodic memorytype of declarative memory/ personal, but bias; eg. graduation, our first date
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