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AP1 Chapter 8 Flashcards

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15450004471diarthrosesfreely movable joints0
15450009176Amphiarthrosisslightly movable joint1
15450013653Synarthrosisimmovable joint2
15450020078fibrous jointscollagen fibers cross gap between bone matrices and join them3
15450040479cartilaginous jointsbones held together by cartilage4
15450047210synovial jointsbones separated by joint cavity filled with synovial fluid5
15450104376synovial joint diagram6
15450135107Meniscussynovial joints contain fibrocartilage called MENISCUS that absorbs shock7
15450155060Bursaeflattened fibrous sacs lined with synovial membrane and containing a thin film of synovial fluid, help tendons glide over joints8
15450327698knee injury diagram9
15450453304most common lateral to medial knee injuriestear the tibial collateral ligament and medial meniscus attached to it, as well as the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL)10
15450489857hip joint diagram11
15450512914Flexionbending a joint12
15450533691extensionStraightening of a joint13
15450545134Hyperextensionextension beyond anatomical position14
15450558807AbductionMovement away from the midline of the body15
15450570944adductionMovement toward the midline of the body16
15450579047Elevationraising a body part17
15450583042Depressionlowering a body part18
15450591125Protractionmoving a body part forward and parallel to the ground19
15450597460Retractionmoving a body part backward and parallel to the ground20
15450606811Circumductioncircular movement of a limb at the far end21
15450626995Rotationlimb pivots around a single axis22
15450661636Supinationpalm up23
15450664913Pronationpalm down24
15450672656oppositionMovement of the thumb to touch the fingertips25
15450681769Osteoarthritisinflammation of the bone and joint, wear and tear, most common, related to aging26
15450693469rheumatoid arthritisa chronic autoimmune disorder in which the joints and some organs of other body systems are attacked, leads to deformities27
15450761392gouty arthritisinflammation and painful swelling of joints caused by excessive urate crystals in the body, genetic cause, usually controlled with diet28
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Period 0 AP World History Flashcards

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14842858082Plato(430-347 BCE) Was a disciple of Socrates whose cornerstone of thought was his theory of Forms, in which there was another world of perfection.0
14842859940HerodotusGreek Historian, considered the father of History. He came from a Greek community in Anatolia and traveled extensively, collecting information in western Asia and the Mediterranean lands.1
14842862270DariusThe third king of the Persian Achaemenid Empire. He ruled the empire at its peak. He organized the empire by dividing it into provinces and placing satraps to govern it. He organized a new uniform money system, along with making Aramaic the official language of the empire. He also worked on construction projects throughout the empire.2
14842867740ZoroastrianismOne of the first monotheistic religions, particularly one with a wide following. It was central to the political and religious culture of ancient Persia.3
14842872424Delian League v.s. Peloponnesian League4
14842880120PericlesAristocratic leader who guided the Athenian state through the transformation to full participatory democracy for all male citizens. Started golden age of Athens.5
14842890051Direct DemocracyGovernment in which citizens vote on laws and select officials directly.6
14842893374PolisA city-state in ancient Greece.7
14842895347Hellenistic Periodthat culture associated with the spread of Greek influence as a result of Macedonian conquests; often seen as the combination of Greek culture with eastern political forms8
14842900953TribunesAn officer of ancient Rome elected by the plebeians to protect their rights from arbitrary acts of the patrician magistrates.9
14842902745ConsulUnder the Roman Republic, one of the two magistrates holding supreme civil and military authority. Nominated by the Senate and elected by citizens in the Comitia Centuriata, the consuls held office for one year and each had power of veto over the other.10
14842905164Punic Wars (264-146 BC)series of 3 wars between Rome and Carthage11
14842910206Latifundiahuge estates bought up by newly wealthy Roman citizens12
14842915689Constantine(274 CE - 337 CE) Roman Emperor between 306 CE and 337 CE. He issued the Edict of Milan which outlawed the persecution of Christians. He also founded the city of Constantinople, the future capital of the Byzantine Empire.13
14842917614Edict of Milan (313)issued by Constantine in 313, ended the "great persecution" and legalized Christianity in the Roman Empire14
14842921931Patricians and PlebeiansFrom the start the roman society was split into two classes. The patricians who were considered to be the upper class could serve as priests, senators and magistrate. The plebeians were the commoners- farmers, laborers and artisans. The wealth did not define the class, some plebeians were rich and more patricians could be poor.15
14842928581RepublicA form of government in which the people select representatives to govern them and make laws.16
14842930962PaulFollower of Jesus who helped spread Christianity throughout the Roman world.17
14842934897ChristianityA monotheistic system of beliefs and practices based on the Old Testament and the teachings of Jesus as embodied in the New Testament and emphasizing the role of Jesus as savior.18
14842936582AshokaLeader of the Mauryan dynasty of India who conquered most of India but eventually gave up violence and converted to Buddhism and promoted the religion across India.19
14842943480Civil Service ExamIn Imperial China starting in the Han dynasty, it was an exam based on Confucian teachings that was used to select people for various government service jobs in the nationwide administrative bureaucracy.20
14842946383Yellow Turban RebellionA massive Chinese peasant uprising inspired by Daoist teachings that began in 184 C.E. with the goal of establishing a new golden age of equality and harmony.21
14842948554Jainisma religion founded in India in the sixth century BC, whose members believe that everything in the universe has a soul and therefore shouldn't be harmed. Mahavira founded this religion.22
14842950531ConfucianismA philosophy that adheres to the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius. It shows the way to ensure a stable government and an orderly society in the present world and stresses a moral code of conduct.23
14842953248DaoismA philosophy in China founded by Laozi which emphasizes the removal from society and to become one with nature.24
14842962115Caste systema set of rigid social categories that determined not only a person's occupation and economic potential, but also his or her position in society25
14842966642DharmaIn Hindu belief, a person's religious and moral duties26
14842966643MokshaThe Hindu concept of the spirit's 'liberation' from the endless cycle of rebirths.27
14842967943Karma(Hinduism and Buddhism) the effects of a person's actions that determine his destiny in his next incarnation28
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AP Terms Flashcards

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11951706550functionsmove the heart and mind of the readers. Literature of knowledge has to teach. Means that literature gives particular values, messages, and themes to the readers. Ex: Persuade, Inform, Entertain0
11951746372symbolicthe practice or art of using an object or a word to represent an abstract idea Ex: The red dress in Mice and Men1
11951794019heedTo mind; to regard with care; to take notice of; to attend to; to observe Ex: He paid it no heed, instead fascinated by the feel of her frame.2
11951822808satireUsing sarcasm or sharp wit to expose human vice or weakness Ex:3
11951844678euphemisticallyby means of a mild or indirect word or expression instead of one considered too harsh or blunt Ex: pre-owned vehicles for used cars4
11951853675pedanticallysomeone who is concerned with precision, formalism, accuracy, and minute details in order to make an arrogant and ostentatious show of learning Ex: is a person at a party who bores everyone while talking at length about the origin and details of a particular piece of pottery5
11951875615grandiloquentlysomething with big words used in a overly self assured way. Ex: a selfish and wordy speech by a presidential candidate6
11951897222frugaleconomical, avoiding waste and luxury; scanty, poor, meager Ex: Mr. Krabs7
11951926908metaphoreis a figure of speech that compares two things by saying one thing is the other thing ex: Life is a journey8
11951936850abstractionsapplied to ideas that are philosophical and emotional not concrete or tangible. Ex:Truth, liberty, freedom9
11951942230iambic pentametera poetic meter that is made up of 5 stressed syllables each followed by an unstressed syllable10
11951999034Blank verseliterary device defined as un-rhyming verse written in iambic pentameter11
11952015351Heroic coupletpair of rhyming lines that express a memorable thought12
11952042219Terza rimaA three-line stanza rhymed aba, bcb, cdc. Ex: Leaping upward like a spark, Light and fleet-non fleeter!- my poet fled this dirty, dark den of kitchen fetor.13
11952051001Ballad meterfour-line stanzas usually rhyming abcb with the first and third lines carrying four accented syllables and the second and fourth carrying three Ex: O mother, mother make my bed. O make it soft and narrow Since my love died for me today, I'll die for him tomorrow14
11952061709free versepoetry that does not rhyme or have a regular meter Ex:15
11954619666contentmenta state of happiness and satisfaction16
11954636952AllusionA reference to another work of literature, person, or event Ex: Hercules is an allusion to Karate Kid when Hercules is training.17
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Ap world history map test Flashcards

Countries and Capitals

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14790430147MexicoMexico City0
14790430148PanamaPanama City1
14790430149JamaicaKingston2
14790430150BahamasNassau3
14790430151VenezuelaCaracas4
14790430152PeruLima5
14790430153ColumbiaBogota6
14790430154BrazilBrasilia7
14790430155ArgentinaBuenos Aries8
14790430156EcuadorQuito9
14790430157Puerto RicoSan Juan10
14790430158CubaHavana11
14790430159MoroccoRabat12
14790430160AlgeriaAlgiers13
14790430161LibyaTripoli14
14790430162EgyptCairo15
14790430163MaliBamako16
14790430164Cote d'IvoireYamoussoukro17
14790430165NigeriaAbuja18
14790430166SudanKhartoum19
14790430167EthiopiaAddis Ababa20
14790430168SomaliaMogadishu21
14790430169KenyaNairobi22
14790430170MadagascarAntananarivo23
14790430171South AfricaPretoria, Cape Town, Bloemfontein24
14790430172AngolaLuanda25
14790430173Deminican Republic of CongoKinshasa26
14790430174EnglandLondon27
14790430175FranceParis28
14790430176SpainMadrid29
14790430177GermanyBerlin30
14790430178FinlandHelsinki31
14790430179SwedenStockholm32
14790430180PolandWarsaw33
14790430181RussiaMoscow34
14790430182UkraineKiev35
14790430183ItalyRome36
14790430184GreeceAthens37
14790430185NorwayOslo38
14790430186IraqBaghdad39
14790430187JordanAmman40
14790430188SyriaDamascus41
14790430189IranTehran42
14790430190IsraelJerusalem43
14790430191Saudi ArabiaRiyadh44
14790430192TurkeyAnkara45
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AP World History Chapter 14 Flashcards

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14641357195MuhammadFounder of Islam0
14641357196Meccathe holiest city of Islam; Muhammad's birthplace1
14641357197MedinaMuhammad fled to here from Mecca after persecution (the Hijra) Preached his message2
14641357198QuranHoly book of Islam written teachings of Muhammad from Mecca and Medina3
14641357199HijraMuhammad's move to Medina. Start of the Islamic calendar (632 CE)4
146413572005 Pillars of Islam1. belief in Allah and Muhammad his prophet 2. Pray to Allah daily and face Mecca 3. observe a fast during daylight hours of Ramadan 4. Give alms for relief for weak and poor 5. Undertake the hajj and one pilgrimage to Mecca to honor Muhammads visits to Mecca5
14641357201HajjPilgrimage to Mecca6
14641357202Jihad"struggle" struggle against ignorance by spreading and converts spiritual and moral obligations; combat vice and evil7
14641357203Ummacommunity of all Muslims -legal and social code -provided relief for widows, orphans, poor -muhammad led the community in prayer and battle8
14641357204ShariaIslamic law -detailed guidance on proper behavior in every aspect of life9
14641357205Shia v. Sunni MuslimsDispute over caliph Shia: Ali, leaders are infallible/supreme Sunni: Abu Bakr, traditionalist10
14641357206Umayyad Dynastycapitol: Damascus -centralized rule; Arab military aristocracy -conquered to expand -taxed non Muslim conquered people11
14641357207Jizyatax on non-Muslims in Umayyad empire12
14641357208Abbasid Dynastycapitol: Baghdad -cosmopolitan: multicultural -allowed Arabs and others to participate in government -not a conquering dynasty, focused on governing/bureaucracy13
14641357209Baghdadcapitol of Abbasid Dynasty huge center of learning, new ideas, government House of Wisdom14
14641357210Sufi Missionariesmost effective missionaries -didn't enforce strict guildlines of the doctrine -tolerated pre-Islamic values -encouraged individuals to explore Allah in their own way -focused on emotional aspect and mystic relationship -helped the poor15
14641357211Dar al-Islaman Arabic term that means the "house of Islam" and that refers to lands under Islamic rule16
14641357212Al-AndalusIslamic Spain17
14641357213Salijuq TurksConquered Baghdad and gained control of the Abbasid Empire18
14641357214How did the growth of Islam contribute to agriculture, industrial, and urban development?New crops products, techniques -cotton used for industry -paper: spread Quran, record keeping(cheap/efficient), jobs Increased food productions, growth of cities, specialization of labor19
14641357215What are the continuities and changes in regards to the status of women in early Islamic society?-Muhammad originally preached that women should have more rights -When more cultures were incorporated after being conquered, male dominance and patriarchal traditions were reinforced -veiling of women: adopted from Byzantine and Sassind empires, incorporated into sharia law, to protect lineage of women20
14641357216Persia Influence in Islam-administrative techniques -literary works21
14641357217India influence in Islam-mathematics, science, medicine -astronomy: navigational ability leads to trade -numerals22
14641357218Greek Influence in IslamPhilosophy and logic incorporated into Islam culture -Aristotle23
14641357219Why did Islam spread so quickly?-Sufi missionaries -invested in education: madrasas, schools integrated Islam, used Quran to learn how to read24
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AP World History Period 1 Vocabulary Chapters 1-6 Flashcards

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15174776586Agricultural RevolutionsThe change from food gathering to food production that occurred between about 8000 and 2000 B.C.E. Also known as the Neolithic Revolution.0
15174776587australopithecinesThe several extinct species of humanlike primates that existed from about 4.5 million years ago to 1.4 million years ago (genus Australopithecus).1
15174776588bipedalismThe ability to walk upright on two legs, characteristic of hominids.2
15174776589cultureSocially transmitted patterns of action and expression.3
15174776590evolutionThe biological theory that, over time, changes occurring in plants and animals, mainly as a result of natural selection and genetic mutation, result in new species.4
15174776591foragersPeople who support themselves by hunting wild animals and gathering wild edible plants and insects.5
15174776592Great Ice AgeGeological era that occurred between about 2 million and 11,000 years ago.6
15174776593hominidThe biological family that includes humans and humanlike primates.7
15174776594Homo erectusAn extinct human species. It evolved in Africa about 1.8 million years ago.8
15174776595Homo habilisThe first human species (now extinct). It evolved in Africa about 2.3 million years ago.9
15174776596Homo sapiensThe current human species. It evolved in Africa sometime between 400,000 and 100,000 years ago.10
15174776597megalithsStructures and complexes of very large stones constructed for ceremonial and religious purposes in Neolithic times.11
15174776598NeolithicThe period of the Stone Age associated with the ancient Agricultural Revolution(s).12
15174776599PaleolithicThe period of the Stone Age associated with the evolution of humans.13
15174776600Stone AgeThe historical period characterized by the production of tools from stone and other nonmetallic substances.14
15174776601amuletSmall charm meant to protect the bearer from evil. Found frequently in archaeological excavations in Mesopotamia and Egypt, amulets reflect the religious practices of the common people.15
15174776602BabylonThe largest and most important city in Mesopotamia. It achieved particular eminence as the capital of the Amorite king Hammurabi in the eighteenth century B.C.E.16
15174776603bronzeAn alloy of copper with a small amount of tin (or sometimes arsenic), which is harder and more durable than copper alone. The term Bronze Age is applied to the era the dates of which vary in different parts of the world when bronze was the primary metal for tools and weapons.17
15174776604city-stateA small independent state consisting of an urban center and the surrounding agricultural territory. A characteristic political form in early Mesopotamia, Archaic and Classical Greece, Phoenicia, and early Italy.18
15174776605civilizationAn ambiguous term often used to denote more complex societies but sometimes used by anthropologists to describe any group of people sharing a set of cultural traits.19
15174776606cuneiformA system of writing in which wedge-shaped symbols represented words or syllables. It originated in Mesopotamia and was used initially for Sumerian and Akkadian but later was adapted to represent other languages of western Asia. Literacy was confined to a relatively small group of administrators and scribes.20
15174776607HammurabiAmorite ruler of Babylon (r. 1792-1750 B.C.E.). He conquered many city-states in southern and northern Mesopotamia and is best known for a code of laws, inscribed on a black stone pillar, illustrating the principles to be used in legal cases.21
15174776608HarappaSite of one of the great cities of the Indus Valley civilization of the third millennium B.C.E. It was located on the northwest frontier of the zone of cultivation (in modern Pakistan).22
15174776609hieroglyphicsA system of writing in which pictorial symbols represented sounds, syllables, or concepts. It was used for official and monumental inscriptions in ancient Egypt. Because of the long period of study required to master this system, literacy in hieroglyphics was confined to a relatively small group of scribes and administrators.23
15174776610ma'atEgyptian term for the concept of divinely created and maintained order in the universe. The divine ruler was the earthly guarantor of this order.24
15174776611MemphisThe capital of Old Kingdom Egypt, near the head of the Nile Delta. Early rulers were interred in the nearby pyramids.25
15174776612Mohenjo-DaroLargest of the cities of the Indus Valley civilization, centrally located in the extensive floodplain of the Indus River in contemporary Pakistan.26
15174776613mummyA body preserved by chemical processes or special natural circumstances, often in the belief that the deceased will need it again in the afterlife.27
15174776614papyrusA reed that grows along the banks of the Nile River in Egypt. From it was produced a coarse, paperlike writing medium used by the Egyptians and many other peoples in the ancient Mediterranean and Middle East.28
15174776615pharaohThe central figure in the ancient Egyptian state. Believed to be an earthly manifestation of the gods, he used his absolute power to maintain the safety and prosperity of Egypt.29
15174776616pyramidA large, triangular stone monument, used in Egypt and Nubia as a burial place for the king. The largest pyramids, erected during the Old Kingdom near Memphis, reflect the Egyptian belief that the proper and spectacular burial of the divine ruler would guarantee the continued prosperity of the land.30
15174776617scribeIn the governments of many ancient societies, a professional position reserved for men who had undergone the lengthy training required to be able to read and write using cuneiform, hieroglyphics, or other early, cumbersome writing systems.31
15174776618SemiticFamily of related languages long spoken across parts of western Asia and northern Africa. In antiquity these languages included Hebrew, Aramaic, and Phoenician. The most widespread modern member of the Semitic family is Arabic.32
15174776619SumeriansThe people who dominated southern Mesopotamia through the end of the third millennium B.C.E.33
15174776620ThebesCapital city of Egypt and home of the ruling dynasties during the Middle and New Kingdoms. Monarchs were buried across the river in the Valley of the Kings.34
15174776621zigguratA massive pyramidal stepped tower made of mud bricks. It is associated with religious complexes in ancient Mesopotamian cities, but its function is unknown.35
15174776622AkhenatenEgyptian pharaoh (r. 1353-1335 B.C.E.). He built a new capital at Amarna, fostered a new style of naturalistic art, and created a religious revolution by imposing worship of the sun-disk.36
15174776623CarthageCity located in present-day Tunisia, founded by Phoenicians ca. 800 B.C.E. It became a major commercial center and naval power in the western Mediterranean until defeated by Rome in the third century B.C.E.37
15174776624DiasporaGreek word meaning dispersal, used to describe the communities of a given ethnic group living outside their homeland. Jews, for example, spread from Israel to western Asia and Mediterranean lands in antiquity and today can be found throughout the world.38
15174776625First TempleA monumental sanctuary built in Jerusalem by King Solomon in the tenth century B.C.E. to be the religious center for the Israelite god Yahweh. The Temple priesthood conducted sacrifices, received a tithe or percentage of agricultural revenues, and became economically and politically powerful.39
15174776626HatshepsutQueen of Egypt (r. 1473-1458 B.C.E.). She dispatched a naval expedition to Punt (possibly northeast Sudan or Eritrea), the faraway source of myrrh. There is evidence of opposition to a woman as ruler, and after her death her name and image were frequently defaced.40
15174776627Hebrew BibleA collection of sacred books containing diverse materials concerning the origins, experiences, beliefs, and practices of the Israelites. Most of the extant text was compiled by members of the priestly class in the fifth century B.C.E. and reflects the concerns and views of this group.41
15174776628HittitesA people from central Anatolia who established an empire in Anatolia and Syria in the Late Bronze Age. With wealth from the trade in metals and military power based on chariot forces, the Hittites vied with New Kingdom Egypt for control of Syria-Palestine before falling to unidentified attackers ca. 1200 B.C.E.42
15174776629Iron AgeHistorians' term for the period during which iron was the primary metal for tools and weapons. The advent of iron technology began at different times in different parts of the world.43
15174776630IsraelIn antiquity, the land between the eastern shore of the Mediterranean and the Jordan River, occupied by the Israelites from the early second millennium B.C.E. The modern state of Israel was founded in 1948.44
15174776631Library of AshurbanipalA large collection of writings drawn from the ancient literary, religious, and scientific traditions of Mesopotamia. It was assembled by the seventhcentury B.C.E. Assyrian ruler Ashurbanipal. The many tablets unearthed by archaeologists constitute one of the most important sources of presentday knowledge of the long literary tradition of Mesopotamia.45
15174776632Linear BA set of syllabic symbols, derived from the writing system of Minoan Crete, used in the Mycenaean palaces of the Late Bronze Age to write an early form of Greek. It was used primarily for palace records, and the surviving Linear B tablets provide substantial information about the economic organization of Mycenaean society and tantalizing clues about political, social, and religious institutions.46
15174776633mass deportationThe forcible removal and relocation of large numbers of people or entire populations. The mass deportations practiced by the Assyrian and Persian Empires were meant as a terrifying warning of the consequences of rebellion. They also brought skilled and unskilled labor to the imperial center.47
15174776634MinoanProsperous civilization on the Aegean island of Crete in the second millennium B.C.E. The Minoans engaged in far-flung commerce around the Mediterranean and exerted powerful cultural influences on the early Greeks.48
15174776635monotheismBelief in the existence of a single divine entity. Some scholars cite the devotion of the Egyptian pharaoh Akhenaten to Aten (sundisk) and his suppression of traditional gods as the earliest instance. The Israelite worship of Yahweh developed into an exclusive belief in one god, and this concept passed into Christianity and Islam.49
15174776636MycenaeSite of a fortified palace complex in southern Greece that controlled a Late Bronze Age kingdom. In Homer's epic poems, Mycenae was the base of King Agamemnon, who commanded the Greeks besieging Troy. Contemporary archaeologists call the complex Greek society of the second millennium B.C.E. "Mycenaean."50
15174776637Neo-Assyrian EmpireAn empire extending from western Iran to Syria-Palestine, conquered by the Assyrians of northern Mesopotamia between the tenth and seventh centuries B.C.E. They used force and terror and exploited the wealth and labor of their subjects. They also preserved and continued the cultural and scientific developments of Mesopotamian civilization.51
15174776638Neo-Babylonian kingdomUnder the Chaldaeans (nomadic kinship groups that settled in southern Mesopotamia in the early first millennium B.C.E.), Babylon again became a major political and cultural center in the seventh and sixth centuries B.C.E. After participating in the destruction of Assyrian power, the monarchs Nabopolassar and Nebuchadnezzar took over the southern portion of the Assyrian domains.52
15174776639PhoeniciansSemitic-speaking Canaanites living on the coast of modern Lebanon and Syria in the first millennium B.C.E. From major cities such as Tyre and Sidon, Phoenician merchants and sailors explored the Mediterranean, engaged in widespread commerce, and founded Carthage and other colonies in the western Mediterranean.53
15174776640Ramesses IIA long-lived ruler of New Kingdom Egypt (r. 1290-1224 B.C.E.). He reached an accommodation with the Hittites of Anatolia after a standoff in battle at Kadesh in Syria. He built on a grand scale throughout Egypt.54
15174776641shaft gravesA term used for the burial sites of elite members of Mycenaean Greek society in the mid-second millennium B.C.E. At the bottom of deep shafts lined with stone slabs, the bodies were laid out along with gold and bronze jewelry, implements, weapons, and masks.55
15174776642CeltsPeoples sharing common linguistic and cultural features that originated in central Europe in the first half of the first millennium B.C.E.56
15174776643ConfuciusWestern name for the Chinese philosopher Kongzi (551-479 B.C.E.). His doctrine of duty and public service had a great influence on subsequent Chinese thought and served as a code of conduct for government officials.57
15174776644DaoismChinese school of thought, originating in the Warring States Period with Laozi. Daoism offered an alternative to the Confucian emphasis on hierarchy and duty.58
15174776645DruidsThe class of religious experts who conducted rituals and preserved sacred lore among some ancient Celtic peoples.59
15174776646HerodotusHeir to the technique of historia (investigation/ research) developed by Greeks in the late archaic period. He came from a Greek community in Anatolia and traveled extensively, collecting information in western Asia and the Mediterranean lands. He traced the antecedents and chronicled the wars between the Greek city-states and the Persian Empire, thus originating the Western tradition of historical writing.60
15174776647KushAn Egyptian name for Nubia, the region alongside the Nile River south of Egypt, where an indigenous kingdom with its own distinctive institutions and cultural traditions arose beginning in the early second millennium B.C.E.61
15174776648loessA fine, light silt deposited by wind and water. It constitutes the fertile soil of the Yellow River Valley in northern China.62
15174776649Mandate of HeavenChinese religious and political ideology developed by the Zhou, according to which it was the prerogative of Heaven, the chief deity, to grant power to the ruler of China and to take away that power if the ruler failed to conduct himself justly and in the best interests of his subjects.63
15174776650MeroëCapital of a flourishing kingdom in southern Nubia from the fourth century B.C.E. to the fourth century C.E. In this period Nubian culture shows more independence from Egypt and the influence of sub-Saharan Africa.64
15174776651nomadsPeople without permanent, fixed places of residence, whose way of life and means of subsistence require them to periodically migrate, often with their herds of domesticated animals, to a familiar series of temporary seasonal encampments.65
15174776652ScythiansTerm used by the ancient Greeks for the nomadic peoples living on the steppe north of the Black and Caspian Seas.66
15174776653ShangThe dominant people in the earliest Chinese dynasty for which we have written records (ca. 1766-1045 B.C.E.).67
15174776655steppeAn ecological region of grass- and shrub-covered plains that is treeless and too arid for agriculture.68
15174776656yin/yangIn Chinese belief, complementary factors that help to maintain the equilibrium of the world. Yang is associated with masculine, light, and active qualities; yin with feminine, dark, and passive qualities.69
15174776657ZhouThe people and dynasty that took over the dominant position in north China from the Shang and created the concept of the Mandate of Heaven to justify their rule. The Zhou era, particularly the vigorous early period (1045-771 B.C.E.), was remembered in Chinese tradition as a time of prosperity and benevolent rule.70
15174776658AlexanderKing of Macedonia in northern Greece. Between 334 and 323 B.C.E. he conquered the Persian Empire, reached the Indus Valley, founded many Greek-style cities, and spread Greek culture across the Middle East. Later known as Alexander the Great.71
15174776659AlexandriaCity on the Mediterranean coast of Egypt founded by Alexander. It became the capital of the Hellenistic kingdom of the Ptolemies. It contained the famous Library and the Museum, a center for leading scientific and literary figures. Its merchants engaged in trade with areas bordering the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean.72
15174776660CyrusFounder of the Achaemenid Persian Empire. Between 550 and 530 B.C.E. he conquered Media, Lydia, and Babylon. Revered in the traditions of both Iran and the subject peoples, he employed Persians and Medes in his administration and respected the institutions and beliefs of subject peoples.73
15174776661Darius IThird ruler of the Persian Empire (r. 522-486 B.C.E.). He crushed the widespread initial resistance to his rule and gave major government posts to Persians rather than to Medes. He established a system of provinces and tribute, began construction of Persepolis, and expanded Persian control in the east (Pakistan) and west (northern Greece).74
15174776662democracySystem of government in which all "citizens" (however defined) have equal political and legal rights, privileges, and protections, as in the Greek city-state of Athens in the fifth and fourth centuries B.C.E.75
15174776663Hellenistic AgeHistorians' term for the era, usually dated 323-30 B.C.E., in which Greek culture spread across western Asia and northeastern Africa after the conquests of Alexander the Great. The period ended with the fall of the last major Hellenistic kingdom to Rome, but Greek cultural influence persisted until the spread of Islam in the seventh century C.E.76
15174776664hopliteA heavily armored Greek infantryman of the Archaic and Classical periods who fought in the close-packed phalanx formation. Hoplite armies & militias composed of middle- and upperclass citizens supplying their own equipment & were for centuries superior to all other military forces.77
15174776666PericlesAristocratic leader who guided the Athenian state through the transformation to full participatory democracy for all male citizens, supervised construction of the Acropolis, and pursued a policy of imperial expansion that led to the Peloponnesian War. He formulated a strategy of attrition but died from the plague early in the war.78
15174776665Peloponnesian WarA protracted (431-404 B.C.E.) and costly conflict between the Athenian and Spartan alliance systems that convulsed most of the Greek world. The war was largely a consequence of Athenian imperialism. Possession of a naval empire allowed Athens to fight a war of attrition, but ultimately Sparta prevailed because of Athenian errors and Persian financial support.79
15174776667PersepolisA complex of palaces, reception halls, and treasury buildings erected by the Persian kings Darius I and Xerxes in the Persian homeland. It is believed that the New Year's festival was celebrated here, as well as the coronations, weddings, and funerals of the Persian kings, who were buried in cliff-tombs nearby.80
15174776668Persian WarsConflicts between Greek city-states and the Persian Empire, ranging from the Ionian Revolt (499-494 B.C.E.) through Darius's punitive expedition that failed at Marathon (490 B.C.E.) and the defeat of Xerxes' massive invasion of Greece by the Spartan-led Hellenic League (480-479 B.C.E.). This first major setback for Persian arms launched the Greeks into their period of greatest cultural productivity. Herodotus chronicled these events in the first "history" in the Western tradition.81
15174776669polisThe Greek term for a city-state, an urban center and the agricultural territory under its control. It was the characteristic form of political organization in southern and central Greece in the Archaic and Classical periods. Of the hundreds of city-states in the Mediterranean and Black Sea regions settled by Greeks, some were oligarchic, others democratic, depending on the powers delegated to the Council and the Assembly.82
15174776670PtolemiesThe Macedonian dynasty, descended from one of Alexander the Great's officers, that ruled Egypt for three centuries (323-30 B.C.E.). From their magnificent capital at Alexandria on the Mediterranean coast, the Ptolemies largely took over the system created by Egyptian pharaohs to extract the wealth of the land, rewarding Greeks and Hellenized non- Greeks serving in the military and administration.83
15174776671sacrificeA gift given to a deity often with the aim of creating a relationship, gaining favor, and obligating the god to provide some benefit to the sacrificer, sometimes in order to sustain the deity and thereby guarantee the continuing vitality of the natural world.84
15174776672satrapThe governor of a province in the Achaemenid Persian Empire, often a relative of the king. He was responsible for protection of the province and for forwarding tribute to the central administration. Satraps in outlying provinces enjoyed considerable autonomy.85
15174776674triremeGreek and Phoenician warship of the fifth and fourth centuries B.C.E. It was sleek and light powered by 170 oars arranged in three vertical tiers. Manned by skilled sailors, it was capable of short bursts of speed and complex maneuvers.86
15174776673SocratesAthenian philosopher (ca. 470-399 B.C.E.) who shifted the emphasis of philosophical investigation from questions of natural science to ethics and human behavior. He attracted young disciples from elite families but made enemies by revealing the ignorance and pretensions of others actions that culminated in his trial and execution by the Athenian state.87
15174776675tyrantThe term the Greeks used to describe someone who seized and held power in violation of the normal procedures and traditions of the community. Tyrants appeared in many Greek city- states in the seventh and sixth centuries B.C.E. often taking advantage of the disaffection of the emerging middle class and, by weakening the old elite, unwittingly contributing to the evolution of democracy.88
15174776676ZoroastrianismA religion originating in ancient Iran that became the official religion of the Achaemenids. It centered on a single benevolent deity Ahuramazda, who engaged in a struggle with demonic forces before prevailing and restoring a pristine world. It emphasized truth-telling, purity, and reverence for nature.89
15174776677aqueductA conduit, either elevated or underground, that used gravity to carry water from a source to a location, usually a city, that needed it. The Romans built many aqueducts in a period of substantial urbanization.90
15174776678AugustusHonorific name of Octavian, founder of the Roman Principate, the military dictatorship that replaced the failing rule of the Roman Senate. After defeating all rivals, between 31 B.C.E. and 14 C.E. he laid the groundwork for several centuries of stability and prosperity in the Roman Empire.91
15174776679Chang'anCity in the Wei River Valley in eastern China. It became the capital of the early Han Empire. Its main features were imitated in the cities and towns that sprang up throughout the Han Empire.92
15174776681equitesIn ancient Italy, prosperous landowners second in wealth and status to the senatorial aristocracy. The Roman emperors allied with this group to counterbalance the influence of the old aristocracy and used the equites to staff the imperial civil service.93
15174776682GaozuThe throne name of Liu Bang, one of the rebel leaders who brought down the Qin and founded the Han dynasty in 202 B.C.E.94
15174776680ConstantineRoman emperor (r. 312-337). After reuniting the Roman Empire, he moved the capital to Constantinople and made Christianity a favored religion.95
15174776683HanA term used to designate (1) the ethnic Chinese people who originated in the Yellow River Valley and spread throughout regions of China suitable for agriculture and (2) the dynasty of emperors who ruled from 202 B.C.E. to 220 C.E.96
15174776684JesusA Jew from Galilee in northern Israel who sought to reform Jewish beliefs and practices. He was executed as a revolutionary by the Romans. Hailed as the Messiah and son of God by his followers, he became the central figure in Christianity, a belief system that developed in the centuries after his death.97
15174776686PaulA Jew from the Greek city of Tarsus in Anatolia, he initially persecuted the followers of Jesus but, after receiving a revelation on the road to Syrian Damascus, became a Christian. Taking advantage of his Hellenized background and Roman citizenship, he traveled throughout Syria-Palestine, Anatolia, and Greece, preaching the new religion and establishing churches. Finding his greatest success among pagans (gentiles), he began the process by which Christianity separated from Judaism.98
15174776685patron/client relationshipIn ancient Rome, a fundamental social relationship in which the patron, a wealthy and powerful individual, provided legal and economic protection and assistance to clients, men of lesser status and means, and in return the clients supported the political careers and economic interests of their patron.99
15174776687pax romanaLiterally, "Roman peace," it connoted the stability and prosperity that Roman rule brought to the lands of the Roman Empire in the first two centuries C.E. The movement of people and trade goods along Roman roads and safe seas allowed for the spread of cultural practices, technologies, and religious ideas.100
15174776688PrincipateA term used to characterize Roman government in the first three centuries C.E., based on the ambiguous title princeps (first citizen) adopted by Augustus to conceal his military dictatorship.101
15174776689QinA people and state in the Wei River Valley of eastern China that conquered rival states and created the first Chinese empire (221-206 B.C.E.). The Qin ruler, Shi Huangdi, standardized many features of Chinese society and ruthlessly marshaled subjects for military and construction projects, engendering hostility that led to the fall of his dynasty shortly after his death. The Qin framework was largely taken over by the succeeding Han dynasty.102
15174776690RepublicThe period from 507 to 31 B.C.E., during which Rome was largely governed by the aristocratic Roman Senate.103
15174776691RomanizationThe process by which the Latin language and Roman culture became dominant in the western provinces. Indigenous peoples in the provinces often chose to Romanize because of the political and economic advantages that it brought, as well as the allure of Roman success.104
15174776692SenateA council whose members were the heads of wealthy, landowning families. Originally an advisory body to the early kings, in the era of the Roman Republic the Senate effectively governed the Roman state and the growing empire. Under Senate leadership, Rome conquered an empire of unprecedented extent in the lands surrounding the Mediterranean Sea.105
15174776693Shi HuangdiFounder of the short-lived Qin dynasty and creator of the Chinese Empire (r. 221-210 B.C.E.). He is remembered for his ruthless conquests of rival states, standardization of practices, and forcible organization of labor for military and engineering tasks. His tomb, with its army of life-size terracotta soldiers, has been partially excavated.106
15174776694Sima QianChief astrologer for the Han dynasty emperor Wu. He composed a monumental history of China from its legendary origins to his own time and is regarded as the Chinese "father of history."107
15174776695Third-Century CrisisHistorians' term for the political, military, and economic turmoil that beset the Roman Empire during much of the third century C.E.: frequent changes of ruler, civil wars, barbarian invasions, decline of urban centers, and near-destruction of long-distance commerce and the monetary economy. After 284 C.E. Diocletian restored order by making fundamental changes.108
15174776696XiongnuA confederation of nomadic peoples living beyond the northwest frontier of ancient China. Chinese rulers tried a variety of defenses and stratagems to ward off these "barbarians," as they called them, and finally succeeded in dispersing the Xiongnu in the first century C.E.109
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