| 5722361769 | Thinking (or cognition) | refers to a process that involves knowing, understanding, remembering, and communicating. | | 0 |
| 5722372044 | concepts | The mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people. This our thinking in such a fundamental way that we usually don't have to stop and think and use them. They are just there. | | 1 |
| 5722383013 | Category Hierarchies | We organize concepts into category hierarchies |  | 2 |
| 5722396050 | Development of Concepts by definitions | We form some concepts with definitions. For example, a triangle has three sides. | | 3 |
| 5743915529 | Development of Concepts by prototype or image | But mostly we form mental concepts by a mental images or best example, prototype. Ex: a robin is a prototype of a bird and a penguin is not | | 4 |
| 5743932434 | schema | The list of characteristics of the concept. They help us understand what a concept is and often causes us to generate expectations about what that concept does | | 5 |
| 5743921018 | Prototype | your mental image or best example you have for a concept. It speeds up our thinking but can also box our thinking in and lead to prejudice if we see something that doesn't fit our prototype. | | 6 |
| 5743937857 | difference between schema and prototype | Prototype is your mental image in your brain best example and schema is the list of characteristics of the concept | | 7 |
| 5743941665 | concept schema and prototype example | Concept: bird Schema: a bird has a beak, feather, and can sometimes fly Prototype: A hummingbird | | 8 |
| 5722407253 | Categories | Once we place an item in a category, our memory shifts toward the category prototype | | 9 |
| 5722414819 | Problem Solving | There are two ways to solve problems: Algorithms and Heuristics | | 10 |
| 5722428076 | Algorithms | methodical logical rule of procedure that guarantees a solution. Exhaust all possibilities before arriving to a solution computers use this. Take a long time. | | 11 |
| 5743977185 | Algorithms example | If you were at the grocery store looking for oatmeal you would search every single isle and section until you found the oatmeal. | | 12 |
| 5744618822 | Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman | researched how people believe that an event is more likely to occur if they can conjure memories of them | | 13 |
| 5722437702 | Heuristics | A simple thinking strategy that allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently. They enhance the likelihood of success but cannot assure it. | | 14 |
| 5743998200 | example of heuristics | If you were at the grocery store shopping for oatmeal you would read the signs at the end of the aisle and look for cereal and then look in that aisle first. You will probably found the oatmeal but it is not sure fire. | | 15 |
| 5722448975 | Two kinds of heuristics | representative heuristics and availability heuristics | | 16 |
| 5744072704 | availability heuristics | Cognitive shortcut in which the probability of an event can easily be determined by how easily the event can be brought to mind. You choose the alternative that is most mentally "available" | | 17 |
| 5744077419 | example of availability heuristics | People are usually more afraid of dying in a plane crash than a car accident, despite evidence they are far more likely to die in a car accident than a plane crash. This is because the plane crash receives much more publicity so it is more readily available in our minds when we consider how to travel, influencing their decisions. | | 18 |
| 5744061649 | representative heuristic | Judging the likelihood of things or objects in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, a particular prototype. It allows people to make quick judgements. | | 19 |
| 5744066541 | example of representative heuristic | If you meet a slim, short, man who wears glasses and likes poetry, what do you think his profession would be: An Ivy league professor or a truck driver. You would think an Ivy league professor judging on your prototype, even though he is far more likely to be a truck driver. | | 20 |
| 5743990252 | difference between Heuristic and algorithm | Heuristics are more error prone but take a shorter time. Algorithms take forever but are a sure fire way to get the answer. | | 21 |
| 5722459896 | Insight | occurs when one suddenly realizes how to solve a problem. You'll often need some prior experience and initial trial and error. your AHA moment. It is in both humans and animals. | | 22 |
| 5744015991 | Example of insight | Sometimes when you are taking a test you happen upon a problem that you have no idea how to solve. Then all of a sudden, the answer comes to you. Hopefully before you hand the test in, but most of the time the answer comes to you that night in the shower. | | 23 |
| 5744022811 | Kohler | Gestalt psychologist that first demonstrated insight through his chimpanzee experiments where he placed a banana above the chimpanzee and watched them attempt to eat their food . He noticed the solution process wasn't slow, but sudden and reflective. | | 24 |
| 5722474468 | Fixation | An inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective. This impediment problem solving. | | 25 |
| 5744031651 | two types of fixation | mental set and functional fixedness | | 26 |
| 5722488746 | Mental Set | A tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, especially if that way was successful in the past. Makes it impossible to see new ways to solve problems. Our mental predisposes how we think. | | 27 |
| 5722491951 | Functional Fixedness | A tendency to think only of the familiar functions of an object. | | 28 |
| 5744037993 | Functional Fixedness example | if you forget your keys but see you have a paper clip in your pocket. But you can't see that you can unlock the door with the paper clip because paper clips are only for clipping paper. Therefore you cannot solve your problem. | | 29 |
| 5722469901 | Confirmation Bias | A tendency to search for information that confirms a personal bias. We seek evidence to support our ideas and dismiss evidence that goes against your way of thinking. | | 30 |
| 5744051392 | Confirmation Bias example | you believe your boyfriend is faithful. So rather than noticing that he is often receiving text messages from other girls you focus on the fact he calls you once a day and brings you flowers when he can't go out. | | 31 |
| 5722567017 | Mere exposure effect | We choose to make decisions about things, events, people, etc. based on how much experience we have had in the past | | 32 |
| 5744093512 | overconfidence | tendency to overestimate the accuracy in ones beliefs. While it presents problems it is actually associated with happiness and making tougher decisions easier. Thinking everything will work out again. | | 33 |
| 5744099432 | framing | How an issue is presented can significantly affect the decisions and judgment. | | 34 |
| 5722505820 | Framing effect | Framing the exact same issue in two different ways can produce two drastically different results. The more positive you make it sound the more people will respond. | | 35 |
| 5744109173 | framing example | saying a surgery has a 90% success rate sounds better than saying a surgery has a 10% failure rate. | | 36 |
| 5744111398 | framing example | marketing ground beef as 75% lean sound better than market it as 25% fat. | | 37 |
| 5722597491 | Belief Bias | The tendency of one's preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning sometimes by making invalid conclusions. You are so stuck on what your belief is that it is biasing your logical reasoning in other areas. | | 38 |
| 5744123656 | example of Belief Perseverance | If you believe the grass is purple, someone could show you very piece of scientific evidence showing that the grass is green and you would still think it is purple. | | 39 |
| 5722607499 | Belief Perseverance | is the tendency to cling to our beliefs in the face of contrary evidence. | | 40 |
| 5722579691 | Foot-in-the-door | Small request to get the person in an agreeable mood
Follow with REAL request that is larger
Most people will again agree! | | 41 |
| 5722586394 | Door-In-the-face | Ridiculous request knowing you'll be rejected
Follow with REAL request that is more acceptable
Most people won't say NO twice! | | 42 |
| 5722618548 | Attribution theory | how one judges or explains the actions of others | | 43 |
| 5722624970 | (Judgment Formation) Dispositional | judging actions based on a person's personality | | 44 |
| 5722640570 | (Judgment Formation) Situational | judging actions based on the events at hand | | 45 |
| 5722652299 | Language | our spoken, written, or gestured work, is the way we communicate meaning to ourselves and others. It transmits culture and the understanding of ideas. | | 46 |
| 5722659939 | Phonemes | The smallest distinct sound unit in a spoken language. | | 47 |
| 5744129453 | example of a phoneme | Bat has three sounds NOT VOWELS
B * A * T | | 48 |
| 5744131399 | example of a phoneme | chat has four sounds (CH is one sound)
ch* a* t | | 49 |
| 5722671571 | Morpheme | The smallest unit that carries a meaning. It may be a word or part of a word. | | 50 |
| 5744134109 | example of Morpheme | milk has one meaning and cannot be broken down
milk= milk | | 51 |
| 5744135432 | example of Morpheme. | pumpkin has one meaning but broke down has two meanings
pump*kin
the little meanings (pump and kin) have nothing to do with the whole meaning pumpkin) | | 52 |
| 5744137368 | example of Morpheme | unforgettable has one meaning but broken down there are many little meanings
unforgettable= un* for*get*table
(the little meanings have nothing to do with the word's meaning as a whole) | | 53 |
| 5744574936 | Morphemes phonemes and grammar | Phonemes are the smallest unit of sounds. They go together to form morphemes, the smallest units that carry units. From there we arrange morphemes into your language's grammar, system of rules allowing you to say what you want to say. | | 54 |
| 5744146766 | structure of language | Phonemes: basic sounds: ch*a*t
Morphemes: smallest meaningful units ex: Pump*kin
words: meaningful units ex: pumpkin
phrase: composed of two or more words ex: meat eater
sentence: composed of many (infinite) words ex: she opened the jewelry box | | 55 |
| 5729945055 | Grammar | is the system of rules in a language that enable us to communicate with and understand others. Very culturally determined | | 56 |
| 5729951463 | Semantics | is the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences. | | 57 |
| 5744162044 | semantic and morpheme | semantic rule tells us that adding -ed to the word laughed tells us it happened in the past. -ed is the morpheme. But the rule -ed means past tense is semantics. | | 58 |
| 5729963061 | Language Development | Children learn their native languages much before learning to add 2+2.
We learn, on average (after age 1), 3,500 words a year, amassing 60,000 words by the time we graduate from high school | | 59 |
| 5729957883 | Syntax | The rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences. | | 60 |
| 5744168934 | syntax exmaple | in english syntactical rule is that adjectives come before noun, white house. But in Spanish it is reversed the noun comes before the adjective, casa blanca. (house white). | | 61 |
| 5744175098 | babbling stage | beginning at four months. baby utters sounds like goo-goo-gah. It is not an imitation of adult speech until 9 or 10 months. There is no difference between cultures and languages in this stage. | | 62 |
| 5744182898 | one word stage | beginning around 1 yr. Child speaks one word and makes the family understand them. Ex: the word dog can mean look at the dog over there. They usually begin with short words that begin with constants like Ball or Dada.
However, children can understand they just can't communicate until this stage. | | 63 |
| 5744194168 | two word stages ( telegraphic speech) | Before the age of 2 the child starts to speak in two word sentences called telegraphic speech. ex: go car means I would like to go for a ride in the car. | | 64 |
| 5744198461 | Longer phrases | After telegraphic speech children start saying ling phrases like mommy get ball, with a syntactical sense. By early elementary years they are enjoying humor. | | 65 |
| 5729975714 | Language Development 2 Theories | Operant Learning and Inborn Universal Grammar | | 66 |
| 5729980004 | Operant Learning | (Skinner) believed that language development can be explained on the basis of learning principles such as association, imitation, and reinforcement. | | 67 |
| 5744205437 | Skinner and language development | believed we learned language operant conditioning. Kids learn to associate word primarily with reinforcement.
children learn to speak form being rewarded for making sound similar to adult speech. ex: when a baby says its first words everyone claps. | | 68 |
| 5729987935 | Inborn Universal Grammar | Chomsky (1959, 1987) the rate of language acquisition is so fast that it cannot be explained through learning principles, and thus most of it is inborn. All human language contains nouns, verbs, and adjectives and humans are born with an innate ability to learn language and even a predisposition to learn grammatical rules. | | 69 |
| 5744217686 | Chomsky | opposed Skinner's ideas. Believed inborn Universal Grammar. Suggested the idea that all languages have a universal grammar (similar underlying structure of all world languages). Believes in the presence of a language acquisition device, A neural system of the brain for understanding language that is switched on by exposure to language in our environment. | | 70 |
| 5744237557 | Linguistic Determinism | language determines the way we think and perceive the world. | | 71 |
| 5744233960 | Language & Thinking | Language and thinking intricately intertwine. | | 72 |
| 5744238051 | Benjamin Whorf (1956) | suggested Linguistic Determinism (linguistic relative hypothesis) | | 73 |
| 5744257387 | Thinking in images | To a large extent thinking is in language, but we also think in images.
Ex: when we are riding a bike we don't think in words pedal pedal pedal or steer steer. | | 74 |
| 5744242496 | example of Linguistic Determinism | In English, time & objects counted & talked about in same way. We have past tense verbs so we can talk about the past
But In Hopi, concept of time as "becoming later", not like physical quantity that you can "have". They do not have past tense verbs therefore they can't really think in the past. | | 75 |
| 5744253367 | Example of how language influences thinking | In Alaska ther is a million names for snow. Here there is one. In Alaska they have different names for different kinds of snow (like hard snow, soft snow, icy snow etc. )to help them prepare for snow. Something we don't do in Wallingford. | | 76 |
| 5744263722 | visualizing | imaging a psychical activity activates the same region as when preforming that activity. So most psychologists believe that it is our thoughts influence our language but they go hand in hand. Visualizing is huge. If you see yourself doing something well the you are more likely to do it well in reality. | | 77 |
